Celebrate! Holidays in the U.S.A.

First edition editors: Anna Maria Malkoç, Frank Smolinski, and Thomas Kral.
First published in 1993
by the English Language Programs Division
United States Information Agency
Washington, D.C.

Second printing 2000
by the Materials Development and Review Branch
Office of English Language Programs
United States Department of State
Washington, D.C.

Second edition authors/editors: Gail Brenner, Marsha Ford, and Patricia Sullivan.
Second edition published in 2007
by the Office of English Language Programs
United States Department of State
Washington, D.C.

ISBN (Print)

978-1-622-39028-1

ISBN (PDF)

978-1-624-25097-2

ISBN (ePub)

978-1-624-25095-8

ISBN (mobi)

978-1-624-25096-5

Office of English Language Programs
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs
United States Department of State
Washington, DC 20547
http://americanenglish.state.gov

CONTENTS

Cover

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Federal Holidays

New Year’s Day (January 1)

Martin Luther King Day (Third Monday in January)

Presidents’ Day (Third Monday in February)

George Washington’s Birthday (February 22)

Abraham Lincoln’s Birthday (February 12)

Memorial Day (Last Monday in May

Independence Day (July 4)

Labor Day (First Monday in September)

Columbus Day (Second Monday in October)

Veterans Day (November 11)

Thanksgiving Day (Fourth Thursday in November)

Christmas Day (December 25)

Celebrations

Chinese New Year (January/February–Lunar Year)

Valentine’s Day (February 14)

Native American Powwows (March–August)

Arbor Day and Earth Day (April 22)

Mother’s Day and Father’s Day (May and June)

Graduations (May and June)

Flag Day (June 14)

Juneteenth (June 20)

Halloween (October 31)

Birthdays and Anniversaries

Recognition Months

Black History Month (February)

Women’s History Month (March)

Asian Pacific American Heritage Month (May)

Hispanic Heritage Month (September 15–October 15)

Glossary

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgments for the First Edition

“Celebrate!” has been a collaborative effort of the Office of English Language Programs drawing on the time and talents of many people. Anna Maria Malkoç conceived of the project. Wendy Bronson did much of the original research and many of the initial drafts. Nicole Fleck searched the archives and the Library of Congress for photographs; and many busy teachers in Costa Rica, Egypt, France, Germany, Madagascar, Mexico, Thailand, Togo, and the United States read the initial draft and offered helpful suggestions. Thomas Kral edited the final copy and made the final decisions on illustrations. I believe readers around the world will agree that their efforts have resulted in an attractive, useful resource.

Frank Smolinski

Project Director

Acknowledgments for the Second Edition

As with the first edition, this second edition of Celebrate! has been a collaborative effort. The main author was Gail Brenner of Santa Cruz, California, who brought the text up-to-date and added new readings. There were further additions and revisions made by Patricia Sullivan and Marsha Ford in the Office of English Language Programs. The photographs were selected by Marsha Ford and Patricia Sullivan. Several people reviewed the text and made helpful comments, including Damon Anderson, Alice Murray, and Thomas Santos. We hope the readers will find this second edition to be informative, interesting, and useful.

Patricia Sullivan

Materials Branch Chief

Office of English Language Programs

May 2007

INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Second Edition

Happy New Year! Trick or Treat! Merry Christmas!

Celebrate! Holidays In The U.S.A. is an introductory survey of the historical and social background of American holidays. It is an upper-intermediate to advanced level English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reader for students of American language and culture interested in the subject of American holidays.

Celebrate! introduces American legal holidays as well as other holidays, celebrations, and commemorations. In a small book such as this, it is impossible to include all holidays that Americans celebrate, and it is equally impossible to describe all the various ways that holidays are celebrated. Only some of the major holidays and some of the ways that holidays are celebrated with family and friends have been included here.

This edition differs from the first edition in that it includes some holidays that were not in the first edition, and omits others that were in the first edition. The text has been revised, new photos have been added, and the glossary has been expanded. As in the first edition, words shown in bold in the text are defined in a list at the end of each unit, and are also in a complete glossary at the end of the book. Each reading passage gives a background of the holiday or celebration, and information about how people honor the day. When relevant, a speech, song, or poem pertaining to the holiday is also included.

People in every culture celebrate holidays. Although the word “holiday” literally means “holy day,” most American holidays are not religious, but are commemorative in nature and origin. Because the nation has a rich ethnic heritage it is possible to trace some of the American holidays to diverse cultural sources and traditions, but most holidays have taken on a distinctively American flavor. In the United States, the word “holiday” is synonymous with “celebration!” We hope that you, the reader, will enjoy reading this book and learning more about the spirit and festivity of American holidays and celebrations.

Glossary

relevant: adj. related to a purpose or issue

celebrate: v. to observe a holiday, special day, or event

literally: adv. actually

commemorative: adj. in honor of a person or event

ethnic: adj. having to do with people and their nationalities and customs

heritage: n. tradition; national or ethnic background

diverse: adj. varied; different

distinctively: adv. noticeable; noticeably different

synonymous: adj. equal to in meaning; compare to equally

FEDERAL HOLIDAYS

In the strict sense, there are no national holidays in the United States. Each of the 50 states has jurisdiction over its holidays. In practice, however, the states tend to observe the ten federal (“legal”) public holidays that the President and Congress have designated.

The ten holidays that are proclaimed by the federal government are as follows: New Year’s Day, Martin Luther King Day, Washington’s Birthday, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, Veterans Day, Thanksgiving, Christmas.

By law, the states can decide when to celebrate a federal legal holiday, and even whether or not to celebrate it at all. However, the majority of the states (and the cities and towns within them) usually choose the date or day celebrated by the rest of the nation.

In 1971, the dates of many federal holidays were officially moved to the nearest Monday by then-President Richard Nixon. The purpose for observing the holidays on a Monday was to allow a long holiday weekend, and to help reduce the high rate of employee and student absenteeism around holidays. When holidays like New Year’s Day, Independence Day, or Christmas fall on a weekend, the closest weekday, Friday or Monday (or both), is also a holiday.

Federal government offices, including the post office, are always closed on all federal legal holidays. State, county, and city government offices are generally closed also. Schools and most businesses close on major holidays like Independence Day and Christmas, but may not be closed, for example, on George Washington’s birthday or Veterans Day. Most retail stores hold their largest sales on holidays, hoping to attract shoppers, who are free from work. Almost all stores are closed on Christmas Day and New Year’s Day.

Glossary

observe: v. to remember and celebrate a special day

federal: adj. of or relating to the national government

designate(d): v. to name; assign to

proclaim(ed): v. to declare officially

absenteeism: n. the incidence of missed workdays by employees because of illness or other reasons

NEW YEAR’S DAY
JANUARY 1

The Times Square New Year’s Eve Ball on display.
Times Square New Year’s Eve Ball 2009 @ SimonPix / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-2.0

In the United States, people begin celebrating the new year on December 31, New Year’s Eve. Many people have parties, and sometimes masquerade balls, where guests dress up in costume and cover their faces with masks to hide their identity. According to an old tradition, guests unmask, or remove their masks, at midnight.

Many people enjoy the tradition of watching the New Year’s festivities in Times Square in the heart of New York City. This celebration is telecast live on news channels across the nation. Traditionally, at one minute before midnight, a lighted ball begins to drop slowly from the top of a pole that is attached to a building. As the ball drops, all the people in Times Square—and many television viewers as well—count down the final minute of the year. At the stroke of midnight, the ball reaches the bottom of the pole, and a huge “Happy New Year” sign lights up. Then Times Square is filled with cheers and noisemakers. Confetti is dropped from windows above, and revelers hug, kiss, and wish each other a “Happy New Year!”

The tradition of counting down the last minute or final seconds of the year is a highlight of New Year’s Eve, not only in Times Square, but at parties and get-togethers throughout the nation. The excitement grows as partygoers watch the clock and count 10! 9! 8! 7! 6!…and shout “Happy New Year!!” at exactly midnight, heralding in the new year.

Some towns and cities host a “First Night” celebration, a large community street party featuring food, music, and other entertainment. First Night parties provide a safe and, often, alcohol-free environment for people of all ages to socialize, celebrate, and “ring in the New Year” together.

At New Year’s Eve parties, people often sing a traditional Scottish song, “Auld Lang Syne,” just after the clock strikes midnight and the cheers of “Happy New Year” subside. Auld Lang Syne was written in the 18th century by the Scottish poet Robert Burns, and may be based on an earlier poem by another Scottish poet. The expression “auld lang syne” means “the old days gone by.”

New Year’s Day

On January first, Americans may relax at home or visit friends, relatives, and neighbors. New Year’s Day get-togethers are often informal, but generally there is plenty to eat and drink as loved ones and friends wish each other the best for the year ahead.

Many families and friends watch television together enjoying the Tournament of Roses Parade,which precedes the Rose Bowl football game—both held in Pasadena, California.

The parade was started in 1890, when Professor Charles F. Holder suggested to the Pasadena Valley Hunt Club that they sponsor a parade to showcase the winter beauty and sunshine of the area. The parade was to be “an artistic celebration of the ripening of the oranges” at the beginning of the year. The first parade consisted of decorated, horse-drawn carriages. Motorized floats were added a few years later, and prizes were given for the most beautiful floats.

The event grew, and in 1895 the Tournament of Roses Association was formed to oversee the festivities. Soon, athletic competitions became part of the day’s events, along with an ostrich race, and once, a race between a camel and an elephant, in which the elephant won!

To enhance the event and increase public interest, a collegiate football game was added in 1902, with Stanford University playing against the University of Michigan. Today, the New Year’s Day Rose Bowl game, featuring the two top college football teams in the nation is, for many Americans, the highlight of New Year’s Day.

From year to year, the parade of floats grew longer, and now the procession takes over 2 1/2 hours to travel the 5 1/2-mile parade route through the streets of Pasadena, California. The flower decorations also grew more elaborate. Today the floats include high-tech animation, and every inch of the float must be covered with flowers or other natural plant material.

The theme of the Tournament of Roses varies from year to year, and the parade now includes thousands of participants in marching bands, on horseback, and on the floats. City officials and celebrities ride in the cars pulling the floats, and a celebrity is chosen to be the grand marshal. The queen of the tournament, along with her court, rides on a special float, which is always the most elaborate, being made from more than 250,000 flowers. Prizes are still given for the best, most beautiful floats.

Thousands of spectators line the parade route, arriving early in the morning or camping out overnight in order to secure the best spot for viewing the parade, which begins at 8 a.m. Spectators and participants alike enjoy the pageantry associated with the occasion. Preparation for next year’s Tournament of Roses begins on January 2.

Watching football games and parades is not the only tradition on New Year’s Day. Americans, like people in many countries, also promise to better themselves in the new year. Some Americans even write down their New Year’s resolutions—promises to themselves for improvement in the coming year.

Glossary

celebrate(ing): v. to observe (recognize) a holiday or other special day with ceremonies, festivities, respect, or rejoicing

masquerade ball: n. a dance or social gathering of people who are wearing masks or coverings over their eyes or face so as not to be recognized

festivity (ies): n. a joyous celebration or party

live: adj. not pre-recorded; broadcast during the actual performance

stroke of midnight: n. 12:00 a.m. exactly; when the clock shows or chimes 12:00 a.m.

confetti: n. small bits of colored paper thrown into the air to mark a celebration

reveler(s) : n. a person who is celebrating at a party or other festivity

get-together(s): n. an informal party or meeting

partygoer(s): n. a person who attends a party

herald (ing): v. to welcome or announce, often with ceremony, respect, or celebration

street party: n. phrase, a celebration held in the street(s) by a neighborhood or community

alcohol-free: adj. an event in which no alcoholic beverages are sold or allowed

ring in the new year: v. an expression that means to celebrate and welcome the new year

tournament: n. a contest involving a number of competitors

parade: n. a public procession or display of people, animals, and/or things moving in a single line

Rose Bowl: n. phrase. a special tournament or final championship competition held each year in Pasadena, California between competing American university football (American style) teams

sponsor: v. to provide financial or official support

showcase: v. to display prominently in order to show the positive features

float(s): n. a platform carrying a display, usually pulled by a vehicle in parades

oversee: v. to direct, supervise, or manage

enhance: v. to make greater, more beautiful, or to increase in value

collegiate: adj. referring to college or university

elaborate: adj. complex, detailed, carried out with care

celebrity (ies): n. a well-known or famous person

spectator(s): n. a person who watches an event but does not actively participate

camp(ing) out: v. to wait in line a very long time, even overnight, for an event or to buy a ticket; people bring sleeping bags, food, drinks, extra clothes, music, books, etc., to keep them comfortable while they wait in line

pageantry: n. formal parades and plays related to an event

MARTIN LUTHER KING DAY
THIRD MONDAY IN JANUARY

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in a photograph by the New York World Telegram & Sun Newspaper
Credit: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., half-length portrait, facing front @ Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-126559

Martin Luther King Day honors the life and legacy of one of the visionary leaders of the Civil Rights Movement and recipient of the 1964 Nobel Prize for Peace.

At a young age Martin Luther King, Jr. showed strong promise, skipping the 9th and 12th grades and entering Morehouse College at the age of 15. His beliefs in equality and brotherly love developed early as he listened to the sermons of his father and grandfather, both ministers.

In late 1955, Martin Luther King, Jr. received his doctorate degree in theology, and moved to Montgomery, Alabama, with his wife, Coretta Scott King, to preach at a Baptist church.

There, as in many southern states, he witnessed the indignities suffered by African Americans as a result of racism, discrimination, and unjust laws. One law required all black passengers to ride in the back of public buses and to give up their seats to white passengers when the front of the bus was full. Dr. King knew that this law violated the rights of every African-American.

On December 1, 1955, a courageous black passenger, Rosa Parks, was arrested and jailed for refusing to give up her seat to a white man. In response to the arrest, black leaders organized a boycott of the public buses in the city of Montgomery. Dr. King was asked to lead the protest. Thousands of people, black and white, refused to ride the bus; instead they formed carpools and they walked. Dr. King urged people to demonstrate peacefully and not resort to violence. Nonetheless, the demonstrators and their supporters were constantly threatened and attacked by those who did not want the system of inequality to change. Many of the demonstrators were arrested and jailed. Dr. King’s home was bombed, but fortunately, his wife and children were not injured.

Despite the violence, the boycott continued, and the bus company suffered great financial loss. Finally after 381 days the boycott of the Montgomery bus system was successful. The Supreme Court declared the state of Alabama’s segregation law unconstitutional. Rosa Parks, the woman whose small act of protest inspired the bus boycott, was later named the “Mother of the Civil Rights Movement.”

The segregation of buses was just one of the many forms of injustice to African Americans. Schools were also segregated throughout the south, and black citizens were denied equal housing, equal pay, job opportunities, and fair voting rights. Service in many hotels and restaurants was also denied.

The bus boycott brought international attention to these inequities and to the leadership of Dr. King. The continuing struggle for justice ultimately led to the Civil Rights Movement. Dr. King was at the forefront of this movement, and became seen worldwide as a symbol and voice for the cause of African Americans.

In 1957, Dr. King and other ministers founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to advance the non-violent struggle against racism. In the years that followed, Dr. King led many non-violent demonstrations. He had studied the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi and believed strongly in the power of non-violent protest. Some black leaders and other citizens vehemently disagreed with this philosophy. But King continued to remind his followers that their fight would be victorious if they did not resort to bloodshed. During the tumultuous years of the Civil Rights Movement, Dr. King was jailed many times. From a jail in Birmingham, Alabama, he wrote the famous words, “Injustice any-where is a threat to justice everywhere.”

One of the key events of the Civil Rights Movement was the March on Washington on August 23, 1963. A crowd of more than 250,000 people gathered in Washington, D.C. and, led by Dr. King they marched to the Capitol Building to support the passing of laws that guaranteed equal civil rights to every American citizen. On the steps of the Lincoln Memorial that day, Dr. King delivered one of his most powerful and eloquent speeches, entitled “I Have a Dream.” The March on Washington was one of the largest gatherings of people that the nation’s capital had ever seen...and no violence occurred. The following year, in 1964, Dr. King was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for leading non-violent demonstrations.

(The following is an excerpt from the speech entitled “I Have a Dream,” delivered by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial on August 23, 1963.)

l say to you today, my friends, that in spite of the difficulties and frustrations of the moment I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.

I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal.”

I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave-owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.

I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character...

I have a dream today.

I have a dream that one day the state of Alabama... will be transformed into a situation where little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls and walk together as sisters and brothers.

I have a dream today.

I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.

This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together knowing that we will be free one day.

This will be the day when all of God’s children will be able to sing with new meaning “My country ‘tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where my fathers died, land of the pilgrim’s pride from every mountainside, let freedom ring.”

And if America is to be a great nation this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!

Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado!

Let freedom ring from the curvaceous peaks of California!

But not only that; let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia!

Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee!

Let freedom ring from every hill and mole-hill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.

When we let freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of that old Negro spiritual, “Free at last! Free at last! Thank God almighty, we are free at last!”

That same year the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, calling for equal opportunity in employment and education. Martin Luther King, Jr. and thousands of others now knew that they had not struggled in vain. Yet there was still much work ahead to ensure that new laws were enforced, and other inequities abolished.

In the years that followed, Dr. King helped champion many legislative reforms, including the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which guaranteed black citizens the right to safely register and vote. That year a record number of black voters went to the polls.

On April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated while supporting a workers’ strike in Memphis, Tennessee. He was just 39 years old. All people who had worked so hard for peace and civil rights were shocked and angry. The world grieved the loss of this great man of peace. Martin Luther King’s death did not slow the Civil Rights Movement. In 1969 Coretta Scott King founded the Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Non-violent Social Change. She passed away in January of 2006, after working throughout her life to keep her husband’s dream alive. Today people continue to work for social justice.

The Making of a Holiday

Throughout the 1980s, controversy surrounded the idea of a Martin Luther King Day. Dr. King’s widow, Coretta Scott King, along with congressional leaders and citizens had petitioned the President to make January 15, Martin Luther King Jr.’s birthday, a legal holiday. Many states were already observing the day. However, some people did not want to have any holiday recognizing Dr. King. Others wanted the holiday on the day he was assassinated. Finally, in 1986, President Ronald Reagan declared the third Monday in January a federal holiday in honor of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. On Monday, January 20, 1986, people across the country celebrated the first official Martin Luther King Day, the only federal holiday to commemorate an African-American.

Now, every year, there are quiet memorial services, as well as elaborate ceremonies and public forums to honor Dr. King and his dream, and to discuss issues of social justice. Schools at all levels offer courses, curricula, and events to teach about racism, equality, and peace. Religious leaders give special sermons extolling Dr. King’s lifelong work for peace. Radio and television broadcasts feature songs, speeches, and special programs that tell the history of the Civil Rights Movement and give highlights of Dr. King’s life and times.

Glossary

recipient: n. person who receives a gift, award, or honor

doctorate: n. the highest academic degree

theology: n. study of religion

witness(ed): v. to observe a situation or event

indignity(ies): n. acts of disrespect and humiliation

racism: n. hatred and prejudice based on racial or ethnic background

discrimination: n. unfair treatment because of race, color, age, etc

.violate(d): v. to act against a right, law, or contract

boycott: n. act of protest by refusing to use a product or service

resort: v. to turn to an extreme action

unconstitutional: adj. not legal according to the Constitution of the United States

Civil Rights Movement: n. political activities during the 1950s and ‘60s to end discrimination and unfair laws

segregation: n. separation by race, color, age, or other characteristic

found(ed): v. to establish; to set up; to start

vehemently: adv. strongly, with anger

bloodshed: n. violence resulting in injury or death

tumultuous: adj. turbulent; troubled

in vain: adv. phrase. without the hoped for result

enforce(d): v. to make people obey laws or rules

abolish(ed): v. to end or terminate by law or decree

reform(s): n. official or legal changes

poll(s): n. voting place

assassinate(d): v. to kill; to murder someone in a planned way

strike: v. to refuse to work in order to make demands on an employer

grieve(d): v. to feel deep sorrow or sadness as when someone dies

controversy: n. dispute; debate

petition(ed): v. to request by means of a formal document

forum(s): n. place or meeting for open exchange of ideas

extol(ling): v. to praise

PRESIDENT’S DAY
THIRD MONDAY IN FEBRUARY

Mt. Rushmore National Memorial in South Dakota features the colossal portraits of four presidents carved from granite: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln.
Mount Rushmore * © Photodisc/Getty Images

This unit combines two birthdays: George Washington’s and Abraham Lincoln’s. The federal holiday is formally called “Washington’s Birthday” and is celebrated on the third Monday in February. However, we have titled this unit “Presidents’ Day” since a common practice is to celebrate the birthdays of both presidents on this day. Some people, in fact, think the day celebrates all the American presidents.

The birthday of George Washington has been a legal federal holiday since 1885, and was originally celebrated on February 22. There was no federal holiday for Abraham Lincoln, but many individual states celebrated Lincoln’s birthday on February 12. In some states, both February 12 and February 22 were declared holidays to commemorate the two presidents.

In 1968 Congress passed the Uniform Holidays Act that fixed Monday as the official day to observe legal federal holidays, including Washington’s Birthday. At this time, since many people assumed that the new date was meant to combine the two presidents’ birthdays, media sources and advertisers began calling the day “Presidents’ Day.” Now, printed calendars and date books indicate the day as “Presidents’ Day,” and retail stores hold huge “Presidents’ Day Sales.”

Despite the confusion surrounding the holiday, the third Monday in February is the day on which Americans are reminded of the influence of both George Washington and Abraham Lincoln on the growth and history of the nation. As a legal holiday, federal and many state and local government offices are closed.

The two following sections discuss the lives and legacies of George Washington, the first president of the United States, and Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth president of the United States.

George Washington’s Birthday

George Washington, the first president of the United States of America, is often referred to as the “Father of Our Country.” Born February 22, 1732, in Virginia, he grew to be a natural leader— instrumental in winning American independence from Britain in the Revolutionary War and creating a united nation out of a conglomeration of struggling colonies and territories.

As a boy, George helped manage his parents’ plantation in Ferry Farm, Virginia. He observed the plantation’s black slaves at work, and learned about planting and crops. George attended school for only 7 or 8 years, and was especially interested in math. His father wanted to send him to England for more education, but when George was eleven, his father died, and George was unable to continue his studies. His interest in military life began early. At fourteen he longed to join the British Royal Navy, but his mother would not give him permission. He then became interested in surveying, a profession in which he could apply his math skills and explore the frontier as he mapped out new settlements. Over the next five years he became a master surveyor, laying the plans for many new towns and farms. By 1750 he had also acquired over 1,000 acres of land for himself.

Shortly after his twentieth birthday, Washington began serving in the army of King George III of England, who ruled over the thirteen colonies and much of the surrounding territories. By twenty-two Washington was a lieutenant colonel and was put in command of a troop of soldiers who fought against the French in the French and Indian War.

While serving under the King, Washington grew resentful of the unfair treatment of colonial soldiers and officers, who received lower pay and poorer supplies and training than regular British troops. When the King lowered the ranks of all colonial officers, Washington resigned in anger. Later he rejoined to learn military tactics from a renowned general.

At the end of the French and Indian War, Washington returned to Virginia and spent many years as a farmer, businessman, and Virginia legislator. In 1759 he married Martha Dandridge Custis, a widow with two children.

By the late 1760s, many colonists began to want their freedom, and to live under their own rule, not under the rule of a faraway king and a British militia. They felt that the taxes, laws, and punishments that the King imposed on them were unfair. In 1773, a local rebellion against high taxes, called the Boston Tea Party, helped to spark the American Revolution. In this rebellion, colonists raided British ships in Boston Harbor and tossed the cargo of tea into the water. When the British closed Boston Harbor as punishment, Washington spoke out vehemently.

In 1774, Washington attended the first Continental Congress where he and other representatives approved a trade boycott of all British goods. Britain tightened its control over the colonies, and in 1775 the Revolutionary War began. Washington was elected Commander in Chief of the Continental Army. On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress signed the Declaration of Independence, claiming America’s freedom from British rule, but it would be seven more years before that independence was won.

Washington led the inexperienced troops of the Continental Army against the British forces during the harsh years of war, until the colonists prevailed and won their independence in 1783. History books recount the hardships of freezing winters, lack of food, discouragement, and desertions during those years of war. They describe Washington’s strong leadership and determination that were instrumental in the eventual victory.

In 1786, Washington was elected president of the Constitutional Convention, a meeting of representatives from each state to draft a constitution for the new nation. Laws written into the Constitution called for a President, and George Washington was considered the natural choice. He was elected, and though Washington was reluctant, he agreed to serve his country as the first President of the United States. On April 30, 1789, at the age of 57, Washington was sworn into office. He moved from Mount Vernon in Virginia to New York City, then the capital of the United States. The trip took a week by horse and carriage. All along the way, people waited eagerly to glimpse the Revolutionary War general and their first President.

Washington accepted two terms as president, but turned down a third term wishing only to retire to his beautiful family home, Mount Vernon. By the time Washington left office, there were 16 states in the Union, and the U.S. Capitol building was being constructed in the newly established District of Columbia.

During his later years, Washington remained active in politics, and he died on December 14, 1799. His memory is evident in the multitude of places in the United States that bear his name, including the United States Capitol, Washington, D.C.

While Washington was alive, legends grew up about him. One legend says that he was so strong, that he could throw a silver dollar across the Potomac River. Some Americans argue that this could be a true story, because parts of the Potomac River, they say, were extremely narrow a few hundred years ago! Another story tells of a time when George Washington was young, and his father gave him a hatchet. Presumably, George tried to cut down a cherry tree with it. His father noticed the cuts on the tree, and asked his son how they got there. “I cannot tell a lie,” George confessed. “I did it with my hatchet.” This story has never been proven, but Americans pass it down to their children as a lesson in honesty. George Washington came to represent honesty, and cherry pies have become a favorite food associated with his birthday holiday.

Americans began celebrating Washington’s birthday from the time of the Revolutionary War. They were grateful for a strong leader who had proven that democracy was a feasible way to govern the growing country. Today, some communities observe the holiday by staging pageants and reenactments of important milestones in Washington’s life. Also, the holiday has taken on a commercial side. Many shopping malls and stores run Presidents’ Day sales to attract shoppers who have the day off from work or school.

Abraham Lincoln’s Birthday

Of all the presidents in the history of the United States, Abraham Lincoln is probably the one that Americans remember with deepest affection. His childhood experiences set the course for his character and motivation later in life. He brought a new level of honesty and integrity to the White House, living up to his nickname, “Honest Abe.” Most of all, he is associated with the final abolition of slavery, with his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln became a virtual symbol of the American dream whereby an ordinary person from humble beginnings could reach the pinnacle of society as president of the country.

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in Kentucky, and spent the first seven years of his life there. Abe’s family, like many on the frontier, lived in a log cabin, and Abe’s father worked hard as a farmer and carpenter to support his family. Abe and his sister were often occupied with household chores, but when they were free they attended a log schoolhouse.

In 1816, the family left Kentucky for Indiana, a state in the Midwest. The United States at this time was still young, and the Midwest was a wild frontier. Indiana offered new opportunities and differed from Kentucky in many ways. One important difference for Abe’s father was that Indiana was a state that did not allow slavery. Abe’s father was opposed to slavery, and instilled the same beliefs in his children.

Abe and his family settled in a forest, in Spencer County, Indiana. Neighbors were few and far away. Eventually, Abe’s father cleared enough land to build a log cabin. He and Abe cleared the woods for farmland, and Abe became so skilled at splitting logs that neighbors settling into the territory paid him to split their logs. Drawings and other depictions of Lincoln as a young man often show him splitting logs in a wooded setting.

During his life, Abe had less than one year of formal schooling. This lack of education only made him hungry for more knowledge. His mother, Nancy Hanks Lincoln, influenced him in his quest for learning. Although she was uneducated and could not read or write, she encouraged her children to study by themselves. Later, after his mother died and his father remarried, Abe’s stepmother was also instrumental in encouraging him to read. Abe would even travel to neighboring farms and counties to borrow books. Legend claims that he was often found reading next to a pile of logs that he should have been splitting.

Even as a boy Lincoln showed skill as a speaker. He noticed that people loved to listen to stories, and he began telling tall tales in the general store where people often gathered.

In 1830 the family moved again, this time to Illinois. Lincoln began working in a store in the capital of Springfield. His powers of speech soon helped him enter a new arena, that of politics and law. In 1834 he was elected into the Illinois State Legislature, and began studying to become a lawyer. There were few law schools in those days, so Lincoln studied law from books that he borrowed from an attorney. He received his license to practice law in 1836. In 1839, he met his future wife Mary Todd. After a long courtship, they married in November 1842, and eventually had four boys.

Lincoln practiced law all across the state, traveling far on horseback and by buggy to different counties. He became well known during this time for his ability to argue a strong convincing case and for his honesty. These experiences eventually led him down the road to become the sixteenth president of the United States.

In 1847 he was elected into Congress, but his criticism of then President Polk made him unpopular, and he did not run for a second term.

He returned to his law practice, but continued to present his views publicly. He was vehemently against slavery and took stands on other controversial issues.

Within a few years, slavery had become a stronger issue and more people were willing to abolish it. Lincoln joined the Republicans, a new political party that was opposed to slavery. The Republicans nominated him for the U.S. Senate in 1858, and in his acceptance speech, he stated:

A house divided against itself cannot stand... This government cannot endure, permanently half-slave and half-free... I do not expect the Union to be dissolved. I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided.

Abraham Lincoln’s oratorical powers brought him to the attention of the nation. He challenged his opponent, the Democratic nominee, to a series of debates in which he argued the moral evil of slavery. With the simple language that he used to communicate with people all his life, he defeated his opponent in the debates, but lost the election.

However, the debates had made Lincoln a national figure, and in 1860, he was nominated by the Republican Party as its candidate for the Presidency of the United States. Lincoln won the election with a majority of the electoral votes—all from the north. But with this election, the country began the process of “dividing against itself.” South Carolina, a strong slave state, had already seceded from the Union. Other slave states followed to form the Confederate States of America. The North and South were divided, and the Civil War began. The war was not only about the abolition of slavery, but also the right of individual states to make their own laws on other key issues.

As the nation was approaching the third year of the war, on January 1, 1863, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which stated that all persons who had been slaves within the southern states were free. Though this Proclamation was limited in that it only applied to states that had seceded from the Union, it transformed the focus of the war. From then on, the march from the North was equated with an expansion of freedom.

The Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania in 1863 was one of the bloodiest of the Civil War, and the largest battle ever fought on American soil. On November 19, 1863, a ceremony was held to dedicate the Gettysburg battlefield as a national monument. At that ceremony Lincoln delivered what was to become one of the finest speeches in American history, the Gettysburg Address. After Lincoln’s short speech there was a polite, but reserved applause. The main speaker of the day was Edward Everett, ex-governor of Massachusetts, who delivered a two-hour oration. As the two speakers returned to Washington together, Lincoln expressed disappointment in his own presentation. “I was a flat failure,” he said of his speech. “I ought to have prepared it with more care.” But Everett reassured him, saying, “I would be glad if…I came near to the central idea of the occasion in two hours as you did in two minutes.”

THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS

November 19, 1863

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation may live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.

But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground. The brave men living and dead who struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work, which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.

On April 9, 1865, the South surrendered, and the Civil War ended. The Union army soldiers spread the word of the war’s end and of Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation. (See Juneteenth, page 93) The difficult task of national reconstruction and reconciliation lay ahead, but Lincoln would not be the person to lead the country through this difficult period.

On April 14, Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln were attending a play at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. An actor, John Wilkes Booth, who disagreed with Lincoln’s political opinions, stepped into the presidential box and shot the President. Lincoln died the following morning.

Quotation from Lincoln

“...As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master. This expresses my idea of democracy. Whatever differs from this, to the extent of the difference, is no democracy.”

Letter, August 1858

Glossary (George Washington’s Birthday)

federal:adj. of or relating to the national government, for example, a federal holiday is a holiday declared by the national government

legacy(ies):n. the good works that a person or group did that survive long after the person or group has left

instrumental:adj. influential; very important

conglomeration:n. a mixture or collection of dissimilar things

colony(ies):n. a group of people living in a new territory with strong ties or links to their parent country; the link is usually at the level of the government

territory(ies):n. a geographic area or subdivision of land that is under the jurisdiction or rule of a government, but is not a full part of that government’s country, e.g., Puerto Rico is a territory of the U.S.

plantation:n. a farm or estate on which crops such as tobacco or sugar are cultivated by resident laborers

surveying:n. a field of work that involves measuring and mapping land

frontier:n. wilderness; unsettled, open lands

settlement(s):n. a village or town where people have established a new community

rank(s):n. position or level within the military, e.g. general; captain; sergeant

resign(ed):v. to quit a job or position

tactic(s):n. strategy; planned method

renown(ed):adj. well-known; famous

widow:n. a woman whose husband has died

impose(d):v. to place on, such as a rule or law

rebellion:n. opposition to authority; revolution

spark:v. to cause to set in motion; suddenly

raid(ed):v. to attack suddenly and without warning

vehement(ly):adv. strongly, with anger

boycott:n. a refusal to buy or use certain goods or services as an action of protest

prevail(ed):v. to triumph; to be victorious

desertion(s):n. abandonment; leaving a responsibility, often without warning or permission

reluctant:adj. not willing; hesitant

swear into:v. phrase. to take an oath before beginning an official position; be inaugurated

glimpse:v. to see briefly

Union:n. refers to the United States

multitude:n. a large number of; many

hatchet:n. a tool to cut wood

presumably:adv. assumption or belief that something is true

confess(ed):v. to tell or admit wrong doing

feasible:adj. possible; workable; practical

pageant(s):n. parades and plays for a special event

reenactment(s):n. performance of historical events

milestone(s):n. significant event in history or a person’s life

Glossary (Abraham Lincoln’s Birthday)

affection:n. fondness; a deep, warm, good feeling

motivation:n. incentive; something that pushes you toward a goal

integrity:n. correct morals and behavior

abolition:n. an ending or termination of, by law

Emancipation Proclamation:n. the government document that officially proclaimed or stated American slaves to be free

virtual:adj. true

pinnacle:n. highest point

chore(s):n. regular or daily work, usually in a household or on a farm

log schoolhouse:n. phrase. a one-room school made of wooden logs (cut and cleaned tree trunks)

instill(ed):v. to give an idea or principle by example or teaching

split(ting) logs:v. phrase. to divide a log or length of tree trunk lengthwise

quest:n. a search

instrumental:adj. influential; very important

legend:n. a popular myth or story about someone or some event in the past; not verifiable

tall tale(s):n. a story that is untrue or exaggerated

legislature:n. an organized body of the government with the authority to make laws

courtship:n. the act of dating, or actions to attract a mate for marriage or union

criticism:n. the act of making a comment (written or oral) of evaluation, usually negative

vehemently:adv. strongly, with anger

controversial:adj. causing disagreement

abolish:v. to end, stop, finish

issue(s):n. a topic or matter of discussion

dissolve(d):v. to break apart

oratorical:adj. speaking; having to do with public speaking

nominee:n. a person who has been proposed for office

electoral vote(s):n. votes from the Electoral College which elects the President and Vice President of the U.S. Each state appoints as many electors as it has senators and representatives in Congress; the District of Columbia has three votes. Though pledged to vote for their state’s winners, electors are not constitutionally obliged to do so. A candidate must win more than 50% of the votes to win the election. (from the online Encyclopedia Britannica: http://www.britannica.com)

secede(d):v. to withdraw from an organization or group

oration:n. speech

reconstruction:n. rebuilding

reconciliation:n. forgiveness; settling a problem

MEMORIAL DAY
LAST MONDAY IN MAY

Memorial Day at Arlington National Cemetery
Memorial Day at Arlington National Cemetery @ Photographs in the Carol M. Highsmith Archive, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division.

It was 1866, and the United States was recovering from the long and bloody Civil War between the North ( Union) and the South (Confederate). Surviving soldiers came home, some with missing limbs, and all with stories to tell. Henry Welles, a drugstore owner in Waterloo, New York, heard the stories and had an idea. He suggested that all the shops in town close for one day to honor the soldiers who were buried in the Waterloo cemetery. On the morning of May 5, the townspeople placed flowers, wreaths, and crosses on the graves of the northern soldiers in the cemetery.

In the South, women’s organizations were also honoring the war dead, decorating the graves of southern soldiers who had died in the war. In many towns and cities there was a growing movement to honor the war dead with a special day. So in 1868, General Jonathan Logan, commander of the Grand Army of the Republic, established May 30 as the official day of observance to honor all those who had given their lives in service of their country. The day was called Decoration Day.

In General Logan’s proclamation of Decoration Day, he declared:

The 30th of May, 1868, is designated for the purpose of strewing with flowers, or otherwise decorating the graves of comrades who died in defense of their country and during the late rebellion, and whose bodies now lie in almost every city, village and hamlet churchyard in the land. In this observance no form of ceremony is prescribed, but posts and comrades will in their own way arrange such fitting services and testimonials of respect as circumstances may permit.

The day was to be a memorial, and was intended also to be a day of reconciliation, as flowers were placed on the graves of both Union and Confederate soldiers in Arlington Cemetery.

In a typical Decoration Day ceremony in the North, veterans would march through the town to the cemetery to decorate their comrades’ graves with flags. They took photographs of soldiers next to American flags. Rifles were shot in the air as a salute to the northern soldiers who had given their lives to keep the United States together. Children read poems and sang civil war songs and hymns. Veterans came to the schools wearing their medals and uniforms to tell students about the Civil War.

In 1882, the name was changed from Decoration Day to Memorial Day, to honor soldiers who had died in all previous wars—not only the Civil War. In the northern States, it was designated a legal holiday. The southern states honored their war dead on other days until the end of World War I.

After World War I, Memorial Day was also called Poppy Day because of Moina Michael’s idea to wear red poppies on the day, in honor of those who had died in the war. She was inspired by John McCrae’s poem, “In Flanders Fields,” which speaks of the bright red poppies that grow among the graves on former battlefields in Belgium. Her sale of poppies on Memorial Day benefited military men in need. The tradition eventually spread to other countries, where real or artificial poppies were sold to benefit war orphans. Since 1922, the VFW (Veterans of Foreign Wars) organization in the United States has sold paper poppies, made by disabled veterans, on Memorial Day.

In 1966, President Lyndon Johnson proclaimed Waterloo, New York the birthplace of Memorial Day. In 1971, President Richard Nixon declared Memorial Day a national holiday, to be observed on the last Monday in May. Cities all around the United States hold their own ceremonies on this day to pay respect to the men and women who have died in wars or in the service of their country.

Today, Memorial Day is also a day for personal remembrance. Families and individuals honor the memory of their loved ones who have died. Church services, visits to the cemetery, flowers on graves, or even silent tributes mark the day with dignity and solemnity. It is a day of reflection. Memorial Day often coincides with the end of the school year, so to many Americans the day also signals the beginning of summer—with a three-day weekend to spend at the beach, in the mountains, or at home relaxing.

Arlington National Cemetery

Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia is the nation’s largest national cemetery. Buried there with a special place of honor are members of the armed forces, as well as astronauts, explorers, and other distinguished Americans. President John F. Kennedy is buried in a spot overlooking Washington, D.C., and marked with an eternal flame.

In the early hours of the morning, on the Friday before Memorial Day, soldiers of the Third U.S. Infantry walk along the rows of headstones. Each soldier stops at a headstone, salutes, takes one flag from the bundle of flags he or she is carrying, and pushes it into the ground. These soldiers are part of a special regiment, the Old Guard, and they consider it a privilege to place flags on the more than two hundred thousand graves of soldiers who served and died in wars. “They have done their job,” said one soldier, “and now it’s my turn to do mine.”

It is an equal honor to guard the Tomb of the Unknowns. Four unknown soldiers have been buried in this spot: one soldier from each of the two World Wars, one from the Korean conflict, and one from the Vietnam War. Each of these soldiers represents all of those who gave their lives in the modern wars. On another hill of Arlington Cemetery, there is a mass grave of unidentified soldiers from the Civil War.

On Memorial Day, the President or Vice President of the United States gives a speech and lays a wreath on the Tomb of the Unknowns. Members of the armed forces give a rifle salute. At other tombs, veterans and families come to lay their own wreaths and say prayers.

Glossary

recover(ing):v. to get well after an illness, disaster, or injury

limb(s):n. arm or leg

honor:v. to remember or recognize with respect and thanks

cemetery:n. graveyard; place of burial

wreath(s):n. ring or circle of leaves or flowers used for decoration or commemoration

decorate(ing):v. to furnish or cover with something ornamental, such as to place flowers on a grave

proclamation:n. an official or public announcement

designate(d):v. to specify; assign

strew(ing):v. to throw around lightly

rebellion:n. revolution or uprising

hamlet:n. small town; village

churchyard:n. the ground around a church, often used as a graveyard

prescribe(d):v. to give guidance or a rule or a direction

post(s):n. military camp or fort

fitting:adj. appropriate

testimonial(s):n. formal statement or declaration of value or merit; words of praise

memorial:n. ceremony or monument to honor the memory of a person who has died or an historical event

reconciliation:n. the act of restoring harmony or a resolution of differences

veteran(s):n. member of the armed forces, now retired or discharged

comrade(s):n. good friend; a colleague

salute:n. gesture of honor or respect

poppy(-ies):n. a species of flower known for its bright red or scarlet flowers

orphan(s):n. a child whose parents have died or have abandoned the child

disable(d):adj. having limited ability due to an injury or physical abnormality

pay respect:v. phrase. Honor

tribute:n. statement of praise and respect

dignity:n. self respect; nobleness of manner

solemnity:n. seriousness

reflection:n. deep thought

signal(s):v. to indicate; to mark

headstone(s):n. stone marker for burial places

privilege:n. special right

mass:adj. pertaining to large numbers or quantities; not separated

unidentified:adj. having no name or identity

INDEPENDENCE DAY
JULY 4

On every Fourth of July in Washington, D.C., a large display of fireworks fills the skies over the Capitol Building and the monuments.
Fireworks over DC © Douglas Litchfield

By the middle of the 1700s, the thirteen colonies that made up part of England’s empire in the “ New World” were growing impatient with the laws and restrictions set by a king 3,000 miles away. They were resentful about taxes imposed upon them; they felt that they should not have to pay British taxes because they were not allowed representatives in Parliament. Their sentiments were expressed in the slogan “Taxation without representation is tyranny!” Many colonists wanted to be self-governing and free from British rule. But independence would be a gradual and painful process. Some colonists could not forget that they were British citizens, and felt that they owed allegiance to King George III. Others wanted the protection of the “Mother Country.” Yet almost all colonists were dissatisfied with the way they were governed by Britain

Unrest and tensions continued to grow, and by 1765 many colonists had joined secret groups called “Sons of Liberty” to plan action or even violence against British authority. This angered the king and he sent more troops to enforce British law. The colonists sometimes taunted the British soldiers or threw stones at them.

Finally, two major events strongly united the colonists against Britain, and hurried destiny. On March 5, 1770, British troops fired on an angry group of Boston citizens, killing five and injuring others. The incident, called the “Boston Massacre,” stunned and infuriated the colonists.

The second major event involved a tax on tea. Tea was a popular commodity in the colonies, but England’s tax laws gave an unfair advantage to one tea merchant, the British-owned East India Company. This made the colonists angry, and they decided to stop buying and drinking tea from the East India Company. To dramatize the protest, Samuel Adams and other men of Boston organized the “Boston Tea Party.” On December 16, 1773, they dressed up as American Indians, boarded an East India Company ship and dumped its cargo of tea into Boston Harbor. King George responded by closing Boston Harbor and enacting more restrictions and punishments. In addition, he required citizens of Boston to house and feed British soldiers.

Representatives in the Virginia colony took the first step toward independence by voting to set up a committee, the Continental Congress, to represent the colonies. The First Continental Congress met in September of 1774 and had delegates from twelve colonies. They drew up a list of grievances against the crown, and this became the first draft of the Declaration of Independence. In the meantime, colonists continued to organize protests against Britain, and to train their own militias.

The Revolutionary War began on April 19, 1775, when British troops tried to raid the Massachusetts militia. Colonists were quick to form fighting units and resist the British troops. In May of 1775 the Second Continental Congress met, and elected Virginia delegate George Washington to be Commander in Chief of the Continental Army. He led American troops against the British throughout the war. For the next eight years, colonists fought fervently for independence. They were not as well trained or well equipped as British troops, but they had other advantages: They had a fierce and united purpose; they fought on familiar terrain; and they used new tactics learned from the Native inhabitants. They often had no uniforms, but their clothing helped camouflage them in the forests, while the British soldiers, called “Red Coats,” were highly visible in their bright red uniforms.

During the fight for freedom, another war—a war of words—was being waged in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress prepared a second draft of the list of grievances. John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress, was the first to sign. The document, the Declaration of Independence, was considered treasonous by the crown, and the fifty-six men who signed it were in danger of being executed. Yet on July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence, officially breaking bonds with England and forming a new independent nation, the United States of America.

Independence Day is celebrated on July 4 because on that day independence from Britain was officially declared. On July 8, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was read publicly for the first time and people celebrated. Bells rang out, bands played, and ships fired their guns; people lit candles and set off firecrackers. But the War of Independence dragged on until 1783 when independence was finally won. That year, Independence Day was made a holiday in the thirteen new states. But not until 1941 was Independence Day officially declared a federal legal holiday.

John Adams, who became the Second President of the United States, was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He wrote to his wife, “I…believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival.... It ought to be [celebrated] with pomp and parades, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires and illuminations from one end of this continent to the other...”

John Adams’ words may have predicted or inspired future Independence Day celebrations. Early Independence Day, or “Fourth of July,” celebrations did, indeed, include games and sports events, shows, military parades, fireworks, and the liberal firing of guns and cannons. But the firearms and fireworks caused many injuries, and even deaths. So in the early 1900s, citizens convinced officials to prohibit guns and to control the use of fireworks on Independence Day. The phrase, “a safe and sane Fourth” became a popular slogan, and is still used today to encourage safety and common sense on the Fourth of July. Today, many cities prohibit fireworks or allow only small items like cherry bombs and sparklers. Some cities organize a local fireworks show, run by trained pyrotechnics specialists.

Every Fourth of July Americans have a holiday from work or school. Communities and families have all-day picnics with favorite foods like hot dogs and hamburgers, potato salad, baked beans, pie, and watermelon. Afternoon activities would not be complete without lively music, a friendly baseball game, or Frisbee toss, and maybe, a three-legged race, and a pie-eating or watermelon-eating contest. Some cities have parades with people dressed as the original “founding fathers” or early colonists, who march to the music of high school bands. At dusk, people gather to watch the city fireworks display. In many areas of the country, special events take place.

For example, a Freedom Festival is held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at Independence Hall, where the Declaration of Independence was signed. Costumed Americans often reenact historical scenes, and read the Declaration of Independence for the crowd. In Massachusetts, the ship U.S.S. John F. Kennedy may come in to Boston Harbor in full sail on the Fourth of July, and the Boston Pops Orchestra will play a musical concert of patriotic songs as hundreds of people watch fireworks burst over the water.

The Liberty Bell

“Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof.”

The sight and sound of a ringing bell on the Fourth of July symbolizes freedom to most Americans and brings to mind the Liberty Bell, which rang out in Philadelphia when the new country was born.

The Liberty Bell once hung in the Old State House, which later became Independence Hall, in Philadelphia. It was rung at every important national event, such as presidential elections, statesmen’s funerals, and of course, the Fourth of July. The bell came to Philadelphia from a foundry in England in 1752. But the very first time the bell was rung, it cracked! Repairs were made and for the next eighty-three years, the bell tolled on special occasions—the most significant on July 8, 1776 to announce the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

Sometime after 1846, the Liberty Bell cracked again and it was removed from the bell tower to protect it from further damage. It was placed on display in Independence Hall. Today, the bell is housed in the Liberty Bell Center, which is open to visitors year round, and is part of the Independence National Historic Park.

At one time, the foundry in England that had made the bell generously offered to take the cracked bell, melt it down and cast it anew, at no charge. But American officials decided to keep the old Liberty Bell as it was. They felt that the American people loved the old bell, and that the crack in the bell was a cherished part of its character and legacy.

America, The Beautiful

From time to time, it is suggested that the song, “America the Beautiful” be made the national anthem, in place of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” [See Flag Day, p. 87] Proponents of this idea argue that “America the Beautiful” is a better national anthem because it praises the whole country, not only the flag, and it was not written as a result of a war. Also, it is much easier to sing. “America the Beautiful” was written in 1893 by Katherine Lee Bates, a writer and professor at Wellesley College. While on vacation, she took a ride up Pike’s Peak, a mountaintop in Colorado, and saw a spectacular view that few people in those days had the opportunity to see. The “spacious skies” and “purple mountains” inspired her to write a poem, which was eventually published. The public loved the poem, and it was often put to music using any tune that fit the lyrics. Eventually, the poem was set to the music of a hymn, “Materna,” by Samuel Ward, and this is the song that Americans know and love today as the most beautiful tribute to their country.

America, The Beautiful

1. O beautiful for spacious skies, For amber waves of grain,

2. O beautiful for pilgrim feet Whose stern impassion’d stress

3. O beautiful for heroes prov’d in liberating strife

4. O beautiful for patriot dream, that sees beyond the years

For purple mountain majesties Above the fruited plain

A thorough fare for freedom beat Across the wilderness

Who more than self their country love’d And mercy more than life

Thine alabaster cities gleam, Undimmed by human tears

America! America! God Shed His grace on thee

America! America! God mend thine ev‘ry flaw

America! America! May God thy gold refine

America! America! God shed His grace on thee

And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea.

Confirm thy soul in self-control, Thy liberty in law,

Till all success be nobleness, And ev‘ry gain divine,

And crown they good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea.

Glossary

restriction(s):n. rules; regulations

impose(d):v. to force upon

sentiment(s):n. strong feelings

slogan:n. saying or phrase that expresses the feelings or cause of a group

tyranny:n. unjust or cruel use of power

gradual:adj. slow; little by little

allegiance:n. loyalty

unrest:n. public dissatisfaction or rebellion

tension(s):n. strained or hostile relations

taunt(ed):v. to tease in a hostile way

destiny:n. fate; future

massacre:n. execution of a large number of people

stun(ned):adj. shocked; surprised

infuriate(d):adj. greatly angered

commodity:n. product or good which is bought or sold

advantage:n. benefit, gain, or profit

dramatize:v. to emphasize in a vivid or emotional way

dress(ed) up:v. phrase. to wear a costume

cargo:n. a load of goods or raw materials carried by ship or airplane

enact(ing):v. to make official; to make into a law

house:v. to provide lodging or shelter

grievance(s):n. complaint

crown:n. monarchy; the king and his rule

militia(s):n. local, state or reserve military force, called in for emergencies

raid:v. to attack for the purpose of stealing goods and supplies

fervently:adv. strongly; passionately

terrain:n. land and its physical features

tactic(s):n. strategies; methods

inhabitant(s):n. resident; person who lives in a specific place

camouflage:v. to hide or conceal by blending in with the surroundings

visible:adj. able to be seen; clearly seen

wage(d):v. to engage in; to carry on

treasonous:adj. acting against one’s own country

execute(d):v. to kill by official order

firecracker(s):n. type of firework that explodes with a bang and a flash of light when lit. See

fireworks.pomp:n. great ceremony or display

bonfire(s):n. large public fire used for celebration or other event

predict(ed):v. to suggest or see the future

fireworks:n. any type of explosive that produces a bright display or loud noise, used for celebration

liberal:adj. free; uncontrolled; excessive

firearm(s):n. gun, cannon, or other such weapon

prohibit:v. to not allow; to forbid

sane:adj. mentally stable; using good judgement

cherry bomb(s):n. small round explosive that looks like a cherry and explodes with a loud crack when thrown on the ground

sparkler(s):n. a type of fireworks on a long stick which sends out sparks and flashes of light when lit

pyrotechnics specialist(s):n. phrase. person trained in the safe use of fireworks and skilled in elaborate fire-works presentations

Frisbee:n. brand name of a flat, round, plastic disk that is thrown and caught as a sports activity

three-legged race:n. phrase. a foot race in which one person’s left leg is tied to another person’s right leg, and they run tied together on “three legs”

founding fathers:n. phrase. the men who wrote and signed the Constitution and led the United States in its early years

reenact:v. to perform or act out a scene or event from the past

burst:v. to explode or break open with force

foundry:n. factory where items are made from melted ore and metal

toll(ed):v. to ring

bell tower:n. a tall structure where bells are hung

cast:v. to shape melted metal

anew:adv. in a new manner; once more

cherish(ed):adj. loved and respected

legacy:n. special history or anything that is handed down from one generation or era to the next

anthem:n. a song that is symbolic of a people, a group, a culture, a movement; usually a song of praise

proponent(s):n. one who supports or agrees with a cause or idea

spacious:adj. having a lot of space; wide and open

hymn:n. religious song or melody

LABOR DAY
FIRST MONDAY IN SEPTEMBER

Eleven-year-old Peter McGuire sold papers on the street in New York City. He shined shoes and cleaned stores, and later ran errands. It was 1863 and his father, a poor Irish immigrant, had just enlisted to fight in the Civil War. Peter had to help support his mother and six brothers and sisters.

In the nineteenth century, many immigrants from Europe and else-where settled in New York City, Chicago, and other major areas of the United States. They found that living conditions were not as wonderful as they had dreamed. Many immigrants lived in the poorest ghettos of the city in run-down housing. Often there were six families crowded into a house made for one family

Working conditions were even worse. Immigrant men, women, and even very young children worked in factories, cloth and steel mills, coalmines, and in construction. They worked under dismal conditions, for twelve to fourteen hours a day, often seven days a week. They were allowed to stop only for a short time to eat, and received no vacations or benefits. They came to work even if they were sick, because if they didn’t, they could be fired. Thousands of people were waiting to take their places. In those days, there was no concept of workers’ rights, and factory owners could treat workers as they wished. Immigrant workers were especially vulnerable.

When Peter McGuire was seventeen, he began an apprenticeship in a piano shop. This job was better than his previous jobs, for he was learning a trade, but he still worked long hours with low pay. At night he went to meetings and classes in economics and social issues of the day. One of the main issues of concern pertained to labor conditions. Workers were tired of long hours, low pay, unsafe working environments and uncertain jobs. They spoke of organizing themselves into a union of laborers to improve their working conditions. In the spring of 1872, Peter McGuire and 100,000 workers went on strike and marched through the streets, demanding a decrease in the long working day.

This event convinced Peter that an organized labor movement was important for the future of workers’ rights. He spent the next year speaking to crowds of workers and unemployed people, and lobbying the city government for jobs and relief money. It was not an easy road for Peter McGuire. He became known as a “disturber of the public peace.” The city government ignored his demands. Peter developed a reputation among business owners as a troublemaker, and he could not find a job in his trade. He began to travel up and down the East Coast to speak to laborers about unionizing. In 1881, he moved to St. Louis, Missouri, and began to organize carpenters there. He organized a convention of carpenters in Chicago, and it was at this event that a national union of carpenters was founded. He became General Secretary of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America.

I Hear America Singing

Walt Whitman

The American poet, Walt Whitman, conveys a romanticized picture of labor as he celebrates the spirit and contributions of the American worker in this famous poem.

I hear America singing, the varied carols I hear:

Those of mechanics—each one singing his, as it should be, blithe and strong;

The carpenter singing his, as he measures his plank or beam,

The mason singing his, as he makes ready for work, or leaves for work;

The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat—the deckhand singing on the steamboat deck;

The shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench—the hatter singing as he stands;

The woodcutter’s song—the plowboy’s on his way in the morning, or at noon intermission, or at sundown;

The delicious singing of the mother—or of the young wife at work—or of the girl sewing or washing Each singing what belongs to him or her and to none else;

The day what belongs to the day—at night the party of young fellows, robust, friendly,

Singing with open mouths their strong melodious songs.

The idea of organizing workers according to their trades spread around the country. Factory workers, dockworkers, and toolmakers all began to demand and get their rights to an eight-hour workday, a secure job, and a future in their trades. Peter McGuire and laborers in other cities decided to plan a holiday for workers, both as a tribute to their contributions to the nation, and as a means of bringing more public awareness to their struggles. They chose the first Monday in September, a date midway between Independence Day and Thanksgiving.

On September 5, 1882 the first Labor Day parade was held in New York City. Twenty thousand workers marched in the parade up Broadway. They carried banners that read “LABOR CREATES ALL WEALTH,” and “EIGHT HOURS FOR WORK; EIGHT HOURS FOR REST; EIGHT HOURS FOR RECREATION!” After the parade, there were picnics all around the city. Workers and celebrants ate Irish stew, homemade bread, and apple pie. At night, fireworks were set off. Within the next few years, the idea of a day to honor workers spread from coast to coast, and all states celebrated Labor Day. In 1894, Congress voted it a national holiday.

Today we celebrate Labor Day with less fanfare on the first Monday of September. Some cities have parades and community picnics. Many politicians “kick off” their political campaigns by holding rallies on the holiday. Most Americans consider Labor Day the end of the summer, and the beaches and other popular resort areas are packed with people enjoying one last three-day weekend. For many students, the new school year begins right after Labor Day.

Glossary

immigrant:n. person who moves permanently to another country

condition(s):n. circumstance; life situation

ghetto(s):n. defined area of a town or city where a certain ethnic or cultural group lives

run-down:adj. needing much repair; in bad condition because of neglect

dismal:adj. miserable and depressing

fire(d):v. to dismiss from a job

concept:n. idea; notion

vulnerable:adj. unprotected; easily harmed or taken advantage of

apprenticeship:n. on-the-job training for someone new to the field

pertain(ed):v. relate to

organize(ing):v. to form an association for a goal or purpose

union:n. an organization of workers

on strike:idiom. not working as a protest against management

labor movement:n. phrase. political activities to improve the conditions of laborers

lobby(ing):v. to urge officials or members of Congress to vote a certain way on an issue

ignore(d):v. pay no attention to; disregard

reputation:n. public opinion about the quality of someone’s character

unionize(ing):v. to form a legal union or group

convention:n. large meeting generally to learn about and discuss issues

joiner(s):n. carpenter who makes desks, chairs, and other furniture that is put together from pieces

fanfare:n. large, noisy celebration or show

kick off:v. to begin, launch, commence

rally(ies):n. meeting held to arouse public interest and support

pack(ed):v. to fill as fully as possible

COLUMBUS DAY
SECOND MONDAY IN OCTOBER

Christopher Columbus, an Italian seaman living in Portugal, convinced Queen Isabella of Spain to fund his first voyage west across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492.
Christopher Columbus @ Library of Congress

Columbus Day is a legal federal holiday that commemorates the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, who sailed west from Spain in 1492 and reached the islands of present day Bahamas. This region was little known to Europeans, although it had been explored and inhabited by Native peoples for over 30,000 years.

Columbus mistakenly thought that he had found a new route to the East, which at the time meant China, Japan, India, and the In-dies. So he called the islands the “West Indies,” and the indigenous inhabitants “Indians.”

Columbus was not the first European to set foot on this land—Scandinavian Vikings, Irish missionaries, and others may have been there as early as 1,000 AD. Nor did Columbus “discover America” as many American schoolchildren were taught. Yet, the first voyage of Columbus was historically significant for a number of reasons. It confirmed that there were rich lands across the Atlantic Ocean, and it inspired a wave of exploration and colonization of the Americas—including land that eventually became the United States. For the approximately 10 million Indians, spread throughout the Americas at the time, the arrival of Columbus was significant in a different way—it changed the course of their lives, and eventually led to their near extinction and the decimation of their cultures.

In the 15th century, European merchants were looking for a new and shorter trade route to the East, where they could get spices, gems, gold, and other “ exotic” goods. The main route was overland, but it was long and dangerous. Portuguese sailors had explored an ocean route, sailing down the coast of Africa, around the Cape of Good Hope, on the southern tip of Africa, then across the Indian Ocean to Asia. But this too was a very long and treacherous journey.

Christopher Columbus (or Cristóbal Colón, as he called him self) was an Italian seaman, living in Portugal. He believed that Japan was only 3,000 miles west of Europe, and China and India were not far beyond. Educated men of the time knew that Columbus had underestimated the size of the Atlantic Ocean, and the world. Still, Columbus insisted that by sailing west, he would find a shorter route to the East. He would then set up a major trading port for the exchange of goods be-tween east and west. All he needed were ships and money. He asked the kings of Portugal, England, and France for financial support, but all refused. Columbus was a skilled seaman and navigator, but no one wanted to invest in such a fool-hearty venture.

Eventually, Columbus convinced Queen Isabella of Spain. She and King Ferdinand agreed to all his requests. Finally, on August 3, 1492, he and ninety men set sail from Spain on the ship, the Santa Maria. Two other ships, the Niña and the Pinta,accompanied him. They sailed west. Two long months went by. His men became tired and sick, and threatened to turn the ships back. Columbus encouraged them, certain that they were close to Asia. Finally, on October 11th they sighted land. The next morning they landed on a lush island, and Columbus thought he had succeeded in his mission. He was not aware of his true location. On the island he encountered the native inhabitants, the Arawak. From them he learned that the island was named “Guanahani.” Columbus christened it “San Salvador” and claimed it immediately for Spain. A few days later, he landed on an island near present-day Cuba, which he thought was part of China.

The Arawak were helpful to Columbus and his crew at first, but their feelings quickly changed when Columbus captured some of their members to take back to the Queen.

When he returned to Spain on March 15, 1493, Isabella and Ferdinand received him with great celebration and honor. He was granted the title of “Admiral of All the Ocean Seas,” was given funding for more voyages, and ordered to colonize the new region for Spain. Columbus made a number of voyages to the Americas, and expanded Spain’s empire, yet he never learned the region’s true identity. At his death, he still believed he had found a route to Asia.

The Making of a Holiday

Few celebrations marked the voyage of Columbus until hundreds of years later. In 1792, a ceremony was held in New York honoring Columbus, and a monument was dedicated to him. Soon afterward, the city of Washington was officially named the District of Columbia, and made the capital of the United States. In the next century, statues, streets, rivers, and cities were named for Columbus. The Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1892 displayed replicas of Columbus’s three ships.

Columbus Day became a holiday, due in part to the efforts of Italians in New York City and elsewhere. Out of pride for their “native son,” a group of New York Italians organized the first celebration of “The Discovery of America” on October 12, 1866. In following years, Italians in other cities held similar events with banquets, parades, and dances. In 1869, San Francisco Italians celebrated October 12, and called it “Columbus Day.” President Franklin Roosevelt officially proclaimed October 12 as Columbus Day in 1937. Now, it is celebrated on the second Monday in October, allowing for a long holiday weekend.

In recent decades Columbus Day has generated much controversy. Native American groups and others began to speak out against the claim that Columbus had discovered America. They proposed that Native Americans, not Columbus, should be recognized as the first and true discoverers of America. They felt that in the spirit of reconciliation the day should celebrate Native Americans. People petitioned their state and local governments to establish an official Native American Day holiday, or to replace Columbus Day with Native American Day. As a result, in schools across the country, Columbus Day curricula began to include information on Native Americans, and on the impact of European contact. Some states now call the holiday by the dual name, Columbus Day/Native American Day. Other states have established a separate Native American Day holiday. The state of South Dakota has officially replaced Columbus Day with Native American Day in recognition of indigenous people.

Glossary

commemorate(s):v. to honor and remember with a ceremony or holiday

inhabit(ed):v. to live in; to reside in

mistakenly:adv. in error

indigenous:adj. native to a region

set foot:v. phrase. to step upon land or property

significant:adj. important; meaningful

confirm(ed):v. to establish as true

extinction:n. dying off of all members of a group or species

decimation:n. destruction or killing of a large part of

merchant(s):n. person who buys and sells items

spice(s):n. flavoring for food, such as, pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon

gem(s):n. precious stone such as ruby, emerald, diamond

exotic:adj. strange or different in a way that is fascinating, interesting, beautiful; foreign

treacherous:adj. difficult and dangerous

insist(ed):v. to be firm in one’s opinion, request, or belief

invest:v. to put money into, for future gain

fool-hearty:adj. foolish; unwise

venture:n. plan; undertaking

convince(d):v. to persuade; to make someone agree

accompany(-ied):v. to go with

encourage(d):v. to inspire; to make others feel braver

lush:adj. green and abundant with plant life

mission:n. goal; important plan or aim

inhabitant(s):n. person who lives in a certain place

christen(ed):v. to name ceremoniously

funding:n. money for a project or venture

monument:n. a stone, building, or some structure (large or small) created to remember a person or event

dedicate(d):v. designed specifically for a person or purpose

replica(s):n. exact copy; likeness

native son:n. phrase. man native to a particular place, often one’s same country

banquet(s):n. a special meal held in honor of an important event, usually a large meal for many people

proclaim(ed):v. to declare officially and publicly

controversy:n. issue for which people have strong opinions on both sides

reconciliation:n. renewed friendliness or relationship

petition(ed):v. to request with an official letter or statement

VETERANS DAY
NOVEMBER 11

Flowers and notes are left in personal remembrance at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C.
Vietnam Wall with Flowers © Photodisc/Getty Images

In 1918, at eleven a.m., on the eleventh day of the eleventh month, the world rejoiced and celebrated. After four years of bitter war, the Armistice between the Allies and Germans was signed. World War I, called the “war to end all wars,” was over.

November 11 was set aside as Armistice Day in the United States, to remember the sacrifices that men and women made during the war in order to ensure a lasting peace. On Armistice Day, soldiers who survived the war marched in parades through their hometowns. Politicians and veteran officers gave speeches and held ceremonies of thanks for the peace they had won.

President Woodrow Wilson, in his Armistice Day proclamation in November 1919, said:

To us in America, the reflections of Armistice Day will be filled with solemn pride in the heroism of those who died in the country’s service and with gratitude for the victory, both because of the thing from which it has freed us and because of the opportunity it has given America to show her sympathy with peace and justice in the councils of the nation.

Congress voted Armistice Day a legal holiday in 1938, twenty years after the war ended. But Americans realized that the previous war would not be the last one. World War II began the following year, and nations great and small again participated in a long and terrible struggle. After the Second World War, Armistice Day continued to be observed. But many veterans of World War II, and later the Korean War, had little connection to the First World War, and often felt that Armistice Day was not significant for them. They wanted to make a change in the holiday to include veterans of other American wars, not only World War I.

In 1953, townspeople in Emporia, Kansas, celebrated the holi-day as “Veterans Day” in gratitude to the veterans in their town. Soon after, Congress passed a bill to re-name the day, and in 1954 President Eisenhower officially changed the name of the national holiday to Veterans Day.

Traditional Veterans Day celebrations, in many towns and cities, may include ceremonies, parades, concerts and speeches. At 11:00 in the morning, in some communities, Americans observe a moment of silence, remembering those who have fought in war. The President of the United States lays a wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at the National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, honoring all of America’s soldiers who have fallen in war.

After the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War, the emphasis on Veterans Day activities shifted. Now there are fewer military parades and ceremonies, and people honor the day in a more introspective and personal way. Veterans and their families gather at war memorials such as the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., where they place gifts and stand in quiet vigil at the names, etched in granite, of their comrades, friends, and relatives who died in the war. People often gather at other national monuments such as those dedicated to World War II and the Korean War, as well as at Arlington National Cemetery where U.S. veterans from any war may be buried. Throughout the United States, families who have lost sons, daughters, and other family members to war, lay flowers and wreaths at local monuments and gravesites, as they turn their thoughts toward peace and the avoidance of future wars.

The trials and hardships of veterans are honored and remembered through the National World War II (WWII) Registry and the Veterans History Project. The WWII Memorial Registry is an individual listing of Americans who contributed to the war effort, comprised of those who signed up for the Registry of Remembrances as well as from other official U.S. government lists. The Veterans History Project was created by the United States Congress and signed into law on October 2, 2000, by President Clinton. It is a project of the Library of Congress and it relies on volunteers to collect and preserve stories and accounts of U.S. veterans. The focus is primarily on 20th century military conflicts in which U.S. soldiers played a role: World War I (1914–1920), World War II (1939–1946), Korean War (1950–1955), Vietnam War (1961–1975), Persian Gulf War (1990–1995), though it also includes more recent conflicts. The Project collects oral history interviews, memoirs, letters, diaries, photographs, and other original materials from veterans of these wars.

Surviving veterans of military service—today numbering more than 25 million—find support in organized groups such as the American Legion and Veterans of Foreign Wars. On Veterans Day and Memorial Day, these groups raise funds for their charitable activities that support disabled veterans and their families. There are also organizations for veterans who oppose war, such as Veterans for Peace, a national organization begun in 1985 that works to raise public awareness of the consequences of war and seeks peaceful alternatives to war.

By remembering veterans and all that they went through, perhaps the leaders of nations will strive to find peaceful solutions to world problems, using war only as a very last resort.

Glossary

rejoice(d):v. celebrate with joy; to be happy

bitter:adj. difficult to bear; distasteful

armistice:n. an agreement to end fighting; a truce

Allies:n. those nations (primarily the British Empire, France, and the Russian Empire) that joined together in opposition to the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey) during World War I

sacrifice(s):n. giving up of important things

ensure:v. to make certain; to guarantee

parade(s):n. a public procession or display of people, animals, and/or formations moving in a single line

politician(s):n. an elected government official

veteran:n. a member of the armed forces, now retired or discharged

proclamation:n. an official or public announcement

reflection(s):n. the thought or opinion or remark made after consideration of something heard or read or an event

solemn:adj. serious

heroism:n. conduct having qualities of a hero

gratitude:n. thankfulness

sympathy:n. association (with); inclination (to)

council(s):n. a committee or legal body appointed or chosen to carry out a set of objectives

participate(d):v. to be actively involved in

struggle:n. a great effort; a fight; a war

significant:adj. meaningful; important

bill:n. a proposed law in government

observe(d):v. to respect or follow a law or custom

fallen:(adj) killed in battle

shift(ed):v. to change

vigil:n. watchful, solemn guard

etch(ed):v. carve on stone or other hard surface

wreath(s):n. an arrangement of flowers or leaves in a ring, used for decoration

avoidance:n. act of preventing

trial(s):n. a situation that tests a person’s endurance or tolerance

registry:n. an official list

comprise(d):v. to consist of; to be made up of

memoir(s):n. a written account of one’s memory of certain events

American Legion:phrase. a national association of former servicemen and servicewomen

charitable:adj. relating to assistance to people in need

disabled:adj. a person having a physical or mental condition that limits his or her movement

THANKSGIVING DAY
FOURTH THURSDAY IN NOVEMBER

On Thanksgiving Day, families gather for a traditional turkey dinner as they give thanks for life’s many blessings.
Family at Thanksgiving Dinner © Photodisc/Getty Images

Almost every culture in the world has held celebrations of thanks for a plentiful harvest. In the United States, Thanksgiving is a time for tradition and sharing. People gather with family and friends on the fourth Thursday in November to enjoy a traditional meal and to give thanks for life’s many blessings. Even if family members live far apart they will try to come together for a family reunion at Thanksgiving.

The American Thanksgiving holiday began as a feast of thanks in the early days of the British colonies in America, almost four hundred years ago. In 1620, a ship named the “Mayflower,” filled with more than one hundred people, left England and sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to the New World. Most of the travelers were from a religious group called “Separatists.” They had separated from the Church of England because they no longer agreed with its beliefs. Separatists groups were outlawed in England, so they migrated to the Netherlands where they could practice their religion freely. Later they received permission and funds from England to establish a new colony in the New World. They had intended to settle close to other colonists along the southern coast. But they sailed off their course and landed further north in what is now Cape Cod Bay, in the state of Massachusetts. On December 21, 1620 they arrived at a place on the bay where they found an abandoned Indian village. They settled there, and called the new home Plymouth.

Their first year in the new settlement was very difficult. Most of the Pilgrims, as they called themselves, had come from English towns, and did not know how to live in the wilderness. Many were fearful of the forests. They were not skilled hunters because in England hunting was only for the aristocracy. Common people were fined or pun-ished for shooting game. They had arrived too late to grow many crops, and their plants were not well suited to the climate. Their seeds of English wheat did not germinate in the new soil. In the first year, half the colony died from disease, and perhaps all would have perished if they had not received help and training from the native inhabitants, the Wampanoag Indians.

In March of 1621, a delegation of Wampanoag Indians, led by Massasoit, their military leader, arrived at the Pilgrims’ settlement. Their purpose was to arrange an agreement with the settlers. The settlers would be allowed to stay on the Wampanoag land in exchange for protection against a rival Indian group. Massasoit brought with him an Indian named Tisquantuman, who knew some English and translated at the meeting. “Squanto,” as the settlers called him, stayed with the Pilgrims, and was very important to their survival. He and other Indians taught the settlers how to grow corn, a new food for the colonists, and showed them crops that grew well in the unfamiliar soil. He taught them how to fish and dig for clams, and how to move quietly through the forest and hunt game.

Throughout the year, the Wampanoag held festivals to thank the earth for its many gifts. The Pilgrims were also familiar with festivals of thanks at harvest time in England. By the fall of 1621, the settlers were learning to survive in their new home, and they harvested bountiful crops of corn, barley, beans, and pumpkins. They had much to be thankful for, so they planned a feast of thanks and special day of prayer. They invited Massasoit who came with ninety others and, according to legend, brought turkeys and deer meat to roast with the other game offered by the colonists. There were also clams, fish, eels, corn bread, squash, nuts, cranberries, and other foods at the feast. From the Indians, the colonists had learned how to cook cranberries (small tart berries) and different kinds of corn and squash. To this first Thanksgiving, the Indians are said to have even brought popcorn.

Until recently, school textbooks often presented the story of the Pilgrims as one in which the Pilgrims cooked the entire Thanksgiving feast, offering it to the “less fortunate” Indians. In fact, as we know now, the feast was planned in part to thank the Indians for teaching them how to live in the wilderness, and how to acquire and cook those foods. Without the Indians, the first settlers would not have survived.

The Making of a Holiday

Colonists continued to celebrate the autumn harvest with a feast to give thanks. After the United States declared independence in 1776, Congress recommended having one day of giving thanks for the whole nation. George Washington suggested the date November 26. Much later Thanksgiving become an official holi-day, largely due to the efforts of Sarah Josepha Hale, a well-known editor of the mid-1800s. She had campaigned for many years to make Thanksgiving a national holiday. Finally in 1864, at the end of the Civil War, she persuaded President Lincoln, and he declared the last Thursday in November an official Thanksgiving Day. In 1941, the fourth Thursday in November was proclaimed a federal legal holiday, giving most people a four-day vacation from work and school.

Thanksgiving falls on a different date each year. Therefore, the President must proclaim the date every year as the official holiday. In the proclamation, the President pays tribute to the historic observance and the significance of the first Thanksgiving at Plymouth in 1621.

In the Thanksgiving spirit of sharing, it is common today for civic groups and charitable organizations to offer traditional Thanksgiving meals to those in need, particularly the homeless. Communities take up food drives for needy families during the holiday.

In 1988, a Thanksgiving ceremony of a different kind took place at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York. More than four thousand people gathered there on Thanksgiving night. Among them were Native Americans representing tribes from all over the country, and descendants of people whose ancestors had migrated to America.

The ceremony was a public acknowledgment of the Indians’ role in the first Thanksgiving 367 years before.

We celebrate Thanksgiving along with the rest of America, maybe in different ways and for different reasons. Despite everything that’s happened to us since we fed the Pilgrims, we still have our language, our culture, our distinct social system. Even in a nuclear age, we still have a tribal people.

—Wilma Mankiller
principal chief of the Cherokee nation

Symbols of Thanksgiving

Turkey, corn, pumpkins, squash, nuts, and cranberry sauce are symbols that represent the first Thanksgiving These symbols, as well as depictions of Pilgrims and the Mayflower, are found on holiday decorations and greeting cards. Autumn colors of orange, red, brown, and yellow are often used in table or door decorations, along with dried flowers, colorful gourds and “Indian corn.” All of these items represent the harvest and the fall season.

Cranberries, which grow in bogs and marshy areas in the New England states, are always on the Thanksgiving table today. The tart berry had many uses for the Indians. It was sweetened to make a delicious sauce; it was used to fight infection; and the red juice was used as a dye for blankets and rugs. The Indians called it “ibimi” or “bitter berry.” The colonists called it “crane-berry” because the bent stalk reminded them of a crane, a bird with a long-neck.

Glossary

plentiful: adj. a very large amount; more than enough

harvest: n. the gathering of food crops

tradition: n. custom, belief, ritual, or practice, often from the past

gather: v. to join together; to meet

reunion: n. meeting of a family or group, often to celebrate

feast: n. great meal with a lot of good food, often for celebrations

colony(ies): n. a group of people living in a new territory with strong ties or links to their parent country; the link is usually at the level of the government

New World: phrase. name given by early explorers to the Western Hemisphere and specifically North America

outlaw(ed): v. to make illegal

migrate(d): v. to move, usually a far distance, to a new place of location

fund(s): n. money; financial support

intend(ed): v. to plan; to have as a purpose

Pilgrim(s): n. member of a religious group that founded a colony in North America

wilderness: n. wild area; nature

aristocracy: n. royalty; nobility; upper class

fine(d): v. to charge a fee as punishment

game: n. wild animals hunted for food or sport

suit(ed): adj. matched; appropriate for

germinate: v. to sprout; to start to grow, such as a seed

perish(ed): v. to die

inhabitant(s): n. one who lives in a specific place or region

delegation: n. official group or representatives

rival: adj. competing; enemy

survival: n. ability to live

unfamiliar: adj. unknown; new

clam(s): n. type of shellfish found buried in the sand or mud

bountiful: adj. plentiful; producing a lot; abundant

barley: n. a type of cereal used in making some beverages and soups

pumpkin(s): n. large orange squash-like vegetable

tart: adj. sweet and sour taste combined

fortunate: adj. lucky; blessed; successful

in part: prep. phrase. Partly

campaign(ed): v. to push or advance a cause; to promote

persuade(d): v. to convince someone to do something

proclaim(ed): v. to declare; to announce publicly

pay(s) tribute: v. phrase. to honor with praise and respect

food drive(s): phrase. an activity to collect food for the poor and the homebound, sick people

tribe(s): n. ethnic, genetic, or language group

descendant(s): n. a person proceeding from an ancestor; offspring of an ancestor

ancestor(s): n. relative who lived in the past, such as grandparent

acknowledgement: n. statement or gesture that shows appreciation

depiction(s): n. picture, drawing, or representation of something

gourd(s): n. squash-like plant; the dried hollow shell of the plant’s fruit

Indian corn: n. phrase. dried corn with red, yellow, or blue kernels, often used as decoration

bog(s): n. wetland

Over the River and Through the Woods

O-ver the riv-er and through the woods to

Grand-moth-er’s house we go. The horse knows the way to

car-ry the sleigh through the white and drift-ed snow.

O-ver the riv-er and through the woods, oh,

how the wind does blow! It stings the nose and

bites the toes as o-ver the ground we go.

CHRISTMAS DAY
DECEMBER 25

A decorated Christmas tree towers over presents waiting to be opened on Christmas morning.
Christmas tree with presents © Photodisc/Getty Images

Christmas is a joyful holiday that is celebrated by most people in the United States. Even though its origins are Christian, it has become a holiday season that is celebrated in various ways by people of many faiths. The Christmas story comes from the Bible. In the story an angel appeared to shepherds and told them that a savior had been born to Mary and Joseph in a stable in Bethlehem. Three Wise Men from the East (the Magi) followed a wondrous star, which led them to the baby Jesus. The Wise Men paid homage to the new child, and presented gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Christmas has been associated with gift giving since the Wise Men brought these gifts to welcome the newborn baby.

On Christmas Eve, December 24, many people attend evening church services, often at midnight. Attention is focused on the nativity scene, the story of the birth of Jesus, and on the spirit of Christmas. Christmas Eve services often include the singing of Christmas carols. On Christmas morning some families also attend church services, but many families spend the morning at home, opening gifts and sharing a special meal. Some people visit friends and neighbors on Christmas Day.

Because many American families are spread out throughout the country, the Christmas season brings a lot of travel. Going home for Christmas is a most cherished tradition so the days before Christmas are some of the busiest times of the year at airports, train stations, and bus depots with people on their way to spend the holidays with their loved ones. Houses may be full of cousins, aunts, and uncles who might not see each other at other times during the year. Family members help in the preparation of the festivities, including of course, making a lot of food! The Christmas dinner table looks much like a Thanks-giving feast, with turkey or ham, cranberry sauce, potatoes, and pie. No Christmas is complete without lots of desserts, like spicy fruitcake and cookies hot from the oven. A popular drink during the holiday parties and gatherings is eggnog, a beverage made of beaten eggs, cream, milk, sugar, spices, and may-be brandy or rum. Plenty of eggnog and hot chocolate are often on hand for family and visitors alike.

Christmas Traditions and Symbols

Decorations

In preparation for Christmas, many people decorate their houses with colored lights and hang a wreath of evergreen branches, or other Christmas decorations on the door. Inside the house people often decorate with bright red poinsettia plants. Most families also put up Christmas trees. In some parts of the USA there are Christmas tree farms where people can cut down their own trees. Most people, however, buy trees that have already been cut and are sold from Christmas tree lots on street corners or in shopping areas. The trees are brought home, set up in the living room, and decorated with lights, ornaments, tinsel, and a star or angel at the top. Under this tree, family members and “Santa” will leave gifts.

Santa Claus

Santa Claus’ origin goes back to Norse and pre-Christian mythological characters who were also associated with gift giving. The Norse God, Odin, rode on a magical flying horse across the sky in the winter to reward people with gifts. In Scandinavian and other European countries, Father Christmas, or Saint Nicholas, comes into houses in the night and leaves gifts for the children, to bring happiness in the coldest months of the year. The legend of Saint Nicholas may have developed from stories of a real Saint Nicholas, a priest who lived in the 300s AD, and reportedly gave money to a poor family. Saint Nicholas became a symbol for gift giving among Christians. Later, Saint Nicholas was substituted with a non-religious figure, Father Christmas, who was represented as a kindly man with a red cloak and long white beard. Immigrants brought the idea of Father Christmas to the United States. His name was eventually changed to Santa Claus, from the Dutch “Sinter Claas,” which means Father Christmas. Santa Claus took shape in the United States, and Americans made him a cheery old gentleman with red cheeks and a twinkle in his eye. American children believe that Santa Claus lives at the North Pole with his wife, Mrs. Claus, and his helpers, the elves. All year he keeps a list of the names of children in the world, and notes whether they have been good or bad. He decides what presents to give to the good children. He oversees the manufacturing and wrapping of the presents by his helpers.

Santa Claus supposedly gets his ideas for the toys from the millions of children who write to him at the North Pole, explaining what they would like for Christmas. Children also find Santa Claus at shopping malls across the country. They sit on his lap and tell him what they want. Of course, their parents are probably nearby listening in as well.

On December 24, Christmas Eve, Santa hitches his eight reindeer to a sleigh, and loads it with presents. The reindeer pull him and his sleigh through the sky to deliver presents to children all around the world, that is, if they have been good all year. On Christmas morning, children can’t wait to open their eyes and see what Santa left for them under the Christmas tree. In many families, on Christmas Eve children prepare a glass of milk and cookies as a snack for Santa. Of course, in the morning the snack is gone, and they know that Santa was there. Santa Claus exists only in our imaginations. But he, Saint Nicholas, and Father Christmas all represent the spirit of giving.

Gift-Giving

Giving gifts is a major Christmas tradition. Gifts are bought or made for all people. Often school children will make gifts in their classrooms for their parents or grandparents. The gifts are wrapped and placed under the Christmas tree to be opened on Christmas morning. Some children are so excited on Christmas Day that they wake up at the crack of dawn to peek into the living room. It is hard for them to wait until after breakfast before opening the gifts.

Nowadays people often complain that Christmas has become too “commercialized,” especially in large cities. Shop owners begin advertising and decorating for Christmas as early as October in hopes of selling more goods. Children demand more from Santa Claus because manufacturers and retailers saturate the media with advertising. Children’s toys have become more complex and expensive. Many kids ask for pricey electronic or sports equipment, while the trend for adults is also for larger, more expensive gifts. Some people believe that the origin and spirit of Christmas has been lost.

Every year human-interest stories appear in the media reminding readers of the origin of Christmas. Shelters for the homeless and hungry appeal for money or gifts for those who are in need. Members of organizations like the Salvation Army dress up as Santa Claus and stand on the sidewalks collecting money for their soup kitchens. City police and other groups supervise a “Toys for Tots” drive, in which people donate new toys for needy children. Company employees may take up a collection for a special charity or a family in need. All of these efforts are meant to emphasize the importance of giving—rather than receiving—during this holiday season.

Christmas Stockings

Long ago, children hung their own stockings, or socks, over the fireplace mantel. Santa entered down the chimney and left candy and presents inside the socks for good children. Bad children received a lump of coal. Today the tradition of hanging up a stocking is carried on, but now many of the stockings are large sock-shaped fabric bags decorated in Christmas red and green and holiday designs. Stockings are often personalized with the owner’s name. In some households all family members, young and old, have Christmas stockings. In others, only the children hang up their stockings. On Christmas morning, everyone eagerly opens their stockings to find small items bringing Christmas cheer.

Christmas Cards

Another important custom of Christmas is to send and receive Christmas cards that express the sentiment of the season. Some cards are religious in nature; others are non-religious, or even humorous. Often the cards—or letters and photos—give information about family events from the previous year. Americans send Christmas cards throughout December to friends, family, co-workers, and even business clients. Christmas cards often include a greeting for the New Year, wishing the recipient, “Merry Christmas and Happy New Year.” Today many people choose cards that say simply, “Happy Holidays” or “Season’s Greetings,” which are inclusive of all faiths.

Christmas Entertainment

Songs, poems, stories, and performances are a regular part of the Christmas season for many families. One well-known poem is “The Night Before Christmas” written by Clement Moore in 1823. American children often listen to this poem before they go to bed on Christmas Eve, in anticipation of Santa’s visit.

A favorite Christmas story is “A Christmas Carol” written by British author Charles Dickens in 1854. Dickens’ story spreads the idea of sharing and compassion. It tells about a poor family with little money to live or eat well, and no money to pay for a doctor for their son, Tiny Tim, who is disabled and walks with crutches. Yet they consider themselves lucky for what they do have—a close, happy family and generous friends. Reading excerpts from “A Christmas Carol” is an important Christmas tradition for many American families. Theater and television productions of “A Christmas Carol” are popular entertainment at Christmas time. Another popular Christmas production is “The Nutcracker,” a ballet by Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky which tells the story of a child’s dream. “The Nutcracker” is a holiday favorite for people of all ages, as many children dance in the cast.

Special Christmas songs, or carols, are sung and heard throughout the holiday season. Carolers from community groups or churches may go from door to door through neighborhoods singing Christmas carols. There are different types of carols: old traditional songs such as “Good King Wenceslaus” and “Deck the Halls;” there are religious songs like “Joy to the World” and “O Little Town of Bethlehem;” and modern American songs like “I’ll Be Home for Christmas.” Christmas carols, both religious and secular, capture the spirit and excitement of the season.

Glossary

celebrate(d): v. to honor by a ceremony or festivity

Bible: n. the holy book of the Christian religion

angel: n. a spirit, usually thought to be from heaven

shepherd(s): n. a person who takes care of or watches sheep

savior: n. one who saves or brings salvation; in Christianity, Jesus Christ

stable: n. a farm building where animals are kept

Magi: n. wise men from the East who came with gifts for baby Jesus

wondrous: adj. remarkable; extraordinary

homage: n. respect; honor

frankincense: n. material from a special East African or Arabian tree that makes a fragrant smell when it is burned

myrrh: n. material from a special East African or Arabian tree which is used in making perfumes

nativity scene: n. phrase. an exhibit of statues or figures which show baby Jesus in the manger with Mary, Joseph, the shepherds, and the Magi

carol(s): n. a song of praise or joy, especially for Christmas

cherish(ed): adj. held dear; appreciated

festivity(ies): n. celebration

spicy: adj. containing aromatic substances such as cinnamon and nutmeg

wreath: n. a ring or circle of leaves, flowers, ribbon or other items, often hung on the door as decoration at Christmas time

lot(s): n. a piece of land with the use specified by an adjective; i.e., parking lot, used car lot, Christmas tree lot, empty lot

tinsel: n. shiny, thin strands of silver or gold colored paper used to decorate the Christmas tree

Norse: adj. Norwegian, from or relating to Norway

mythological: adj. not having a factual basis, relating to a myth or story

saint: n. a title given by church (usually Christian) to represent one of God’s chosen

substitute(d): v. to be replaced

cloak: n. a long, loose outer garment without sleeves

immigrant(s): n. a person who moves permanently to another country

cheery: adj. friendly, happy

twinkle: n. sparkle; bright spot like a star

elf(ves): n. small mischievous or helpful creature in mythology

oversee(s): v. to supervise

hitch(es): v. to connect

reindeer: n. deer-like animal living in cold regions

sleigh: n. vehicle with runners pulled by animals over snow

exist(s): v. to live; to be

imagination(s): n. picture or idea in the mind

spirit: n. an attitude or intention

crack (of dawn): n. the earliest light of the day; daybreak

peek: v. to take a quick look as if from a place of hiding

commercialize(d): v. to exploit for profit

retailer(s): n. a person who sells items directly to customers

saturate: v. to fill up completely

pricey: adj. expensive

shelter(s): n. safe place; haven

soup kitchen(s): phrase. a place where food is served free of charge to people in need

drive: n. organized event or effort to raise money for a cause

mantel: n. an ornamental shelf over a fireplace

lump: n. irregularly shaped piece

coal: n. black ore used for fuel

personalize(d): v. to make personal by adding the owner’s name or initials

sentiment: n. feeling

humorous: adj. funny; amusing

recipient: n. person who receives a gift or award

anticipation: n. looking forward, thinking of the future

crutches: n. support used as a walking aid

generous: adj. giving

production(s): n. staged performance or show

caroler(s): n. person singing Christmas carols at Christmas time, generally in a group standing outside or going door to door in a neighborhood

secular: adj. of or relating to worldly concerns; non-religious

The Night Before Christmas

’Twas the night before Christmas when all through the house

Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse.

The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,

In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there.

The children were nestled

all snug in their beds,

While visions of sugarplums danced through their heads.

Mamma in her kerchief, and I in my cap,

Had just settled down for a long winter’s nap.

When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter

I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.

Away to the window I flew like a flash,

Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.

The moon on the breast of the new fallen snow,

Gave a luster of mid-day to objects below.

When, what to my wondering eyes should appear

But a miniature sleigh, and eight tiny reindeer.

With a little old driver, so lively and quick,

I knew in a moment it must be St. Nick.

More rapid than eagles his coursers they came,

And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name:

“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen!

On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donner and Blitzen

To the top of the porch to the top of wall!

Now, dash away, dash away, dash away all!”

As leaves that before the wild hurricane fly,

When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky,

So, up to the house top the coursers they flew,

With a sleigh full of toys and St. Nicholas, too.

And then in a twinkling I heard on the roof,

The prancing and pawing of each little hoof.

As I drew in my head, and was turning around,

Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound.

He was dressed all in fur from his head to his foot,

And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot.

A bundle of toys he had flung on his back.

And he looked like a peddler just opening his pack.

His eyes how they twinkled, his dimples how merry!

His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry;

His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow,

And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow.

The stump of a pipe he held tight in his teeth,

And the smoke, it encircled his head like a wreath.

He had a broad face, and a little round belly,

That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.

He was chubby and plump a right jolly old elf,

And I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself.

A wink of his eye, and twist of his head,

Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread.

He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work,

And filled all the stockings, then turned with a jerk.

And laying his finger aside of his nose,

And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose.

He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle,

And away they all flew like the down of a thistle;

But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight,

“HAPPY CHRISTMAS TO ALL
AND TO ALL A GOOD NIGHT.”

CELEBRATIONS

In addition to the ten federal holidays, there are celebratory days such as Valentine’s Day, Halloween, and Mother’s Day that are commonly recognized in schools and communities. Other celebrations are known throughout the USA but are not celebrated as widely or consistently, such as Chinese New Year, Native American Powwows, Arbor Day, Earth Day, and Juneteenth. In addition, there are days that are celebrated on a more personal and familial level such as birthdays, anniversaries, and graduations. On these celebratory days places of work remain open.

Just as these special occasions vary widely in their popularity, so do the ways in which people celebrate them. For example, elaborate parades are an important feature of Chinese New Year celebrations, while birthdays and anniversaries are often commemorated with parties limited to family and friends.

CHINESE NEW YEAR
JANUARY/FEBRUARY–LUNAR YEAR

Colorful banners announce an exhibition of foods for the celebration of the New Year.
Chinese lanterns © Unlisted Images, Inc.

Gung Hay Fat Choy! This is the Chinese greeting for the New Year; it means, “Wishing you luck and prosperity.” The New Year is one of the most important and festive Chinese holidays. In the United States, where more than 2.5 million people of Chinese descent live, Chinese New Year’s celebrations provide an important connection to Chinese culture and heritage. Chinese immigrants brought the traditions with them when they came to America to work in gold mining camps and on the railroads in the mid-1800s.

The Chinese New Year falls in late January or early February according to the Chinese lunar calendar, and traditionally lasts fifteen days ending with the full moon.

For the New Year, people decorate their homes with colorful pictures of flowers and fruits, and hang red paper squares or scrolls on which gold Chinese characters represent luck, happiness, prosperity, or health. Red is the color for Chinese New Year as it represents good luck. It also symbolizes fire, which is said to drive away bad luck and evil spirits, particularly the legendary monster, “nian.” People wear red for the New Year, write poems and wishes on red paper, and give red envelopes, called “laisee” packets, filled with “lucky money” to children and young adults. Red firecrackers are also an essential part of Chinese New Year. From ancient times to the present, Chinese people have welcomed in the New Year and chased away the evil spirits by setting off firecrackers. Long ago people lit bamboo stalks, which crackled and sparked to scare away spirits that could bring bad luck to the year.

On the night before the New Year, families and friends come together for a special meal, which includes Chinese foods that represent happiness, health, and luck.

On the final night of celebration is the Feast of the Lantern, or “Yuen Sui.” The lanterns are beautifully painted with animals, flowers and birds, or legendary scenes. Traditionally, the glowing lanterns were carried in a procession and hung in the temples. The Feast of the Lantern includes a dragon dance, which is performed by a huge, long dragon made of paper, silk, bamboo, or rattan. The dragon is carried by many people as it dances through the streets chasing a red “sun-ball,” or a white “pearl-ball,” held aloft by a parade participant. In the United States, the Feast of the Lantern is generally part of a larger parade that often occurs on the weekend closest to the New Year.

Today, Chinatowns in American cities with large Chinese populations, such as New York and San Francisco, hold elaborate and lively New Year’s celebrations that attract hundreds of thousands of participants and spectators.

In San Francisco, Chinese New Year is one of the largest Asian cultural events outside of Asia. Huge crowds gather in the streets of Chinatown to watch the festive and noisy parade, which includes decorated floats, musicians playing drums and gongs, lion dancers with paper lion heads on sticks, marching bands, Chinese acrobats, martial arts groups, and many firecrackers. At the end of the parade is a special Golden Dragon that was made by dragon masters in Foshan, China. The Golden Dragon is resplendent in gold and silver, fur, silk, paper, and rainbow-colored pompoms. It stretches over 200 feet long and requires 100 people to carry it. The dragon sways back and forth, twists and turns, jumps and dances amid the sparks and noise of over 500,000 firecrackers!

An important aspect of Chinese New Year is the animal connected with that year. For example, the New Year may be called, “The Year of the Horse” or “The Year of the Dog.” The Chinese lunar calendar, created in 2600 BC, has a 12-year cycle, and each year is associated with one of 12 animals on the Chinese calendar. The animals are the rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog, and pig. It is said that when Buddha asked all the animals to meet him on the New Year, these twelve animals came, and he named a year for each one. People born in that year are said to embody the characteristics, both good and bad, of its animal. The animal for the year is honored and featured on posters and many other items during New Year’s celebrations.

Glossary

prosperity: n. wealth; abundance

festive: adj. lively; fun

descent: n. family origin or line

heritage: n. one’s family, cultural, or national back-ground

lunar: adj. of or related to the moon

scroll(s): n. long rolled paper containing writing or pictures

legendary: adj. myths or stories told long ago

firecracker(s): n. a small explosive set off to make noise and a flash of light

ancient: adj. from the past, before written records

crackle(d): v. to make a popping noise, often because of fire or flame

spark(ed): v. to produce a flash of light due to heat, fire, or electricity

scare away: v. to chase or frighten away; causing someone or an animal to run away because of fear or surprise

lantern: n. container from which light is emitted by a candle inside

glowing: adj. bright, shining from an inner light

procession: n. long moving line of people, in a parade or ceremony

dragon: n. a mythical animal depicted as a long snake-like creature with four claws

aloft: adv. above one’s head; high

parade: n. a public procession or display of people, animals and/or formation moving in a single line

elaborate: adj. very detailed and beautiful

spectator(s): n. person who watches an event or performance

float(s): n. a platform carrying an exhibit usually pulled by a motorized vehicle (sometimes by animals or people) in a parade

gong(s): n. metal disc which produces a deep musical tone

resplendent: adj. spectacular and richly decorated

fur: n. hair of an animal

pompom(s): n. colored ball made of yarn or cloth

amid: adv. among; together with

aspect: n. part; characteristic

embody: v. to represent or contain fully

characteristic(s): n. quality; trait; aspect

feature(d): v. to show prominently; to present

VALENTINE’S DAY
FEBRUARY 14

A box of chocolates and red roses are traditional Valentine’s Day gifts.

Valentine’s Day has roots in several different legends that have found their way to us through the ages. One of the earliest popular symbols of the day is Cupid, the Roman god of Love, who is represented by the image of a young cherub with bow and arrow.

Valentine’s Day is named after a Roman martyr named Valentine. Actually, there are two Valentines in the history of Roman martyrs. One was a Christian priest, who lived around 300 AD. He had been thrown in prison for his teachings, and for refusing to worship the Roman gods. He also supposedly cured the jailer’s daughter of her blindness. On February 14, this Valentine was beheaded. As the story goes, the night before he was executed, he wrote the jailer’s daughter a farewell letter, signing it, “From Your Valentine.”

The other Valentine was an Italian bishop who lived at about the same time. It is believed that he was imprisoned because he secretly married couples, contrary to the laws of the Roman emperor. Young men were forbidden to marry until they had served as soldiers. This Valentine was also reportedly beheaded, becoming a martyr for the cause of love.

Around February 14 there was a yearly Roman holiday, “Lupercalia,” held near the caves of Lupercal—the place where the mythical founders of Rome—Romulus and Remus—were nursed as infants by a wolf. The date of this holiday, the association with fertility, and the belief that young men randomly chose the name of a young girl to escort to the festivities, may link the ancient festival with Valentine’s Day.

The custom of choosing a sweetheart on this date spread through Europe in the Middle Ages, and then to the early American colonies. During the 1700s, on Valentine’s Day young men wrote the name of their sweetheart on their sleeve, a practice that is probably the origin of the saying, “wearing his heart on his sleeve.” Throughout the ages, people also believed that birds picked their mates on February 14!

Whatever the odd mixture of origins, Valentine’s Day is now a day for sweethearts. It is the day that you show your friend or loved one that you care. You can send candy to someone you think is special. Or you can send flowers, particularly red roses, which are the flowers of love. Most people send their “valentines” a greeting card. These greeting cards are also called “valentines” after the notes that one St. Valentine wrote from jail. Valentine’s Day cards can be sentimental, romantic, and heartfelt. They can be funny and friendly. If the sender is shy, the valentine can be anonymous, or signed “Your Secret Admirer.”

Americans of all ages love to send and receive valentines. Valentines are often heart-shaped, or have drawings of hearts or Cupid, the symbols of love, on them. In some elementary schools, children bring or make valentines for all their classmates and put them in a large decorated box, similar to a mailbox. On February 14, the teacher opens the box and distributes the valentines to each student. After the students read their valentines, they have a small party with refreshments. Handmade valentines, often created by cutting hearts out of colored paper and decorating them with lace, ribbon, or other material, show that a lot of thought was put into making them personal.

People often write a short rhyme inside a homemade valentine, such as:

Roses are red,
Violets are blue
Sugar is sweet
And so are you!

For people of all ages, newspapers throughout the country have a Valentine’s Day offer. Anyone can send in a message destined for a would-be sweetheart, a good friend, a son or daughter, a parent, an acquaintance, or even a spouse of fifty years. For a small fee, the message is printed in a special section of the newspaper on February 14. Even if no one writes one for you, these messages are fun and heart-warming to read. They often include pet names such as “sugar lump,” “teddy bear,” “sweetie pie,” or “honey.” People sometimes abbreviate words such as writing “4-ever” for “forever.”

Glossary

legend(s): n. a popular story, perhaps untrue, that is passed down through history

cherub: n. a type of angel appearing as a young boy with wings

martyr: n. a person who is killed, chooses to die, or suffer greatly for a cause or belief

supposedly: adv. according to some people; it is assumed to be true

behead(ed): v. to execute by having one’s head cut off

execute(d): v. to put to death by an official order

mythical: adj. based on a traditional story or myth, or imagination

nurse(d): v. to care for; to nourish or feed from the breast

randomly: adv. by chance; not in any order

escort: v. to accompany; to go with or take to an event

sleeve: n. the part of a shirt that covers the arms

origin: n. beginning; source

mate(s): n. male or female member of a pair

sentimental: adj. emotional; full of feeling

heartfelt: adj. sincere

anonymous: adj. without the sender’s or author’s name

refreshment(s): n. light food and drink

destine(d): v. to be intended for; to be received by a specific person or at a specific destination

would-be: adj. possible; hoped to be

acquaintance: n. a friend, but not a close friend

spouse: n. husband or wife

fee: n. a payment required for a service

pet name(s): n. phrase. sweet or endearing nickname; special name given to a loved one

NATIVE AMERICAN POWWOWS
MARCH–AUGUST

Indian tribal dresses incorporate elaborate beadwork.
Native American Woman ©Unlisted Images, Inc.

A powwow is a large social gathering of Native American tribes and individuals. Every year, hundreds of powwows occur on Native American reservations and in other locations across the nation from March through August. Pow-wows are lively occasions that include tribal dance and dance competitions, drumming, singing, Indian foods, art, crafts, educational events, presentations, and in some areas, a rodeo. Despite the festive atmosphere, powwows are also spiritual occasions that involve rituals, blessings, and respectful protocol. These are times for Native Americans to strengthen ties of culture, community and tradition, and to celebrate heritage and history.

The word “pow-wow” comes from an Algonquin Indian word “pau-wau” or “pauau,” which referred to tribal spiritual leaders and their religious and healing ceremonies. The ceremonies usually included dancing and rituals, which were sometimes seen by early European settlers and explorers. Because they did not understand Indian culture or ceremonies, they thought a “pow-wow,”—their mispronunciation of the Indian word—was any tribal gathering or event. Eventually the Anglicized word became commonly used, even among Native Americans. Now, the word “powwow” and the event itself have come to signify and embody the spirit and continuity of Native American cultures and people.

Two of the most essential features of a powwow are traditional dancing and drumming. At the start of a powwow, a Dance Arbor is set up and blessed in a ritual way. After this, the Dance Arbor is considered sacred space, and may be entered only by designated individuals for dancing and other special ceremony. Dancers, wearing elaborate regalia, perform traditional dances, or participate in dance competitions, vying for top honors and prize money.

The regalia worn by dancers are meticulously made, and may take years to complete. The designs and elements used may represent the dancer’s tribal affiliation, or combine features of other tribes. The outfit often includes valuable family heirlooms and sacred items such as feathers, for which there are specific rules and protocol. Some of the dancers wear bells on their wrists and ankles, which add a jingling rhythm to the dance. Others, with fancy shawls, look like delicate flying birds as they raise their arms to the beat of the drums. Grass dancers wear outfits of brightly-colored yarn or fabric rep-resenting meadow grass.

The dancers are accompanied by a group of five to ten singers, collectively called “a drum.” They sit around a large drum, which they beat in unison as they sing. Some singers may also stand behind. Traditionally all singers and drummers were male, but today many women sing and drum, and some groups are all female. Many of the songs do not have words, but consist entirely of syllables, called “vocables,” which convey the deep feeling and meaning of the song. Songs are sung four times in succession, as the number four is sacred to Indian culture and represents the four directions. The drumming and singing are the core of the powwow, providing a rhythmic pulse to the event.

Until the 20th century, non-Indians usually did not participate in powwows. But today, powwows are public events and open to all, providing an opportunity for Native Americans to share their culture and traditions. Non-Indians can enjoy the festivities, try new foods such as “Indian fry bread,” purchase beautiful handmade goods like jewelry of silver and turquoise, finely crafted drums and flutes, pottery, painted gourds, and traditional clothing. They can participate in some events and dances such as the Round Dance or Blanket Dance. And they can learn about the rich heritage and present day lives of America’s first inhabitants.

The spirit of the powwow is a continuum in Indian life. It isn’t just for a few days in March. We live this spirit on a daily basis. It is why we have survived for so long. At one time we were a forgotten people, but I think we are getting stronger. From the powwow we gain strength as Indian people, individually and collectively, to go on into the [next] century.

—Linday Yardley
Taos Pueblo Indian

Glossary

reservation(s): n. a tract or parcel of land set aside for the use of a group or groups such as the Native American tribes

lively: adj. active, fun, festive

rodeo: n. a public performance and/or competition featuring such activities as horse riding, bull riding, and calf roping

spiritual: adj. relating to or affecting the spirit, often in a deeply religious sense

ritual(s): n. symbolic gestures to show respect, thanks, prayer, or blessing

protocol: n. a set of customs and regulations

heritage: n. family, cultural, or ethnic background or line

healing: n. an action or activity meant to restore to health

Anglicize(d): adj. made more English-like in spelling, pronunciation, custom, or manner

embody: v. to represent or contain fully

arbor: n. archway or other overhead structure

sacred: adj. holy; highly respected, usually in a religious sense

designate(d): v. appointed; chosen for a specific purpose or task

elaborate: adj. beautifully decorated; complex in detail

regalia: n. special clothing or outfit worn for ceremonial purposes

vie(-ying): v. to try for or compete for

meticulously: adv. in a very careful and detailed manner

affiliation: n. association; connection

heirloom: n. cherished family treasure, such as jewelry, that is passed down from generation to generation

jingle(-ing): adj. like the sound of a bell

shawl(s): n. long piece of cloth used for covering one’s shoulders

yarn: n. thread made of natural or synthetic fibers

collectively: adv. together as a group

unison: n. having one voice or sound

in succession: prep. phrase. one after another; repeatedly

core: n. center; central part

pulse: n. beat; heartbeat

turquoise: n. semi-precious stone of pale or dark green-blue, often used in Native American jewelry

gourd(s): n. vegetable related to the pumpkin that is dried, hollowed, and sometimes decorated

inhabitant(s): n. person who lives in a specific area

ARBOR DAY & EARTH DAY
APRIL

The earth, as seen from space.
Earth from space © Getty Images

Since both Arbor Day and Earth Day focus on the environment, they are combined in this unit. National Arbor Day is the last Friday in April and Earth Day is April 22.

Arbor Day

In the 1840s, the mid-western state of Nebraska was a territory on a wide prairie. When pioneers settled there, they found few trees for building houses or to burn for fuel. There was no shade from the sun or wind, and crops did not grow well in the dry earth.

J. Sterling Morton was one of those pioneers who moved to the treeless Nebraska territory. He and his wife planted trees on their property immediately after moving from their hometown of Detroit, Michigan. Morton was a journalist, and later the editor, for Nebraska’s first newspaper. In his writings, he advocated planting trees to help life on the vast barren plain.

Later, as a member of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, Morton proposed that citizens of the new state set aside April 10 as a day to plant trees. He believed that the planting of trees and orchards would greatly improve Nebraska’s economy and landscape. He suggested offering prizes as incentives to communities and organizations that planted the most trees properly. Everyone welcomed the idea enthusiastically. On April 10, 1874, people throughout Nebraska planted about one million trees in celebration of that first Arbor Day. Several years later, Nebraska declared Arbor Day to be a state holi-day, and the date was changed to April 22, 1882, which was Morton’s birthday.

The tradition of celebrating Arbor Day spread quickly through the United States. During the 1870s, following Nebraska’s lead, other states adopted the tradition and began to plant Arbor Day trees. At first there was no set date for the celebration, though the last Friday in April was most commonly chosen as the official day. Today National Arbor Day is the last Friday in April; however, because the best tree-planting season changes from region to region, states often choose an alternate date for planting trees. In Hawaii, for example, people plant Arbor Day trees on the first Friday in November, and in Florida, Arbor Day is the third Friday in January.

Arbor Day has now spread beyond the United States and is celebrated in many countries of the world. Because of J. Sterling Morton and his interest in the environment and the wide-scale planting of trees, citizens throughout the world have become more aware of the importance of trees. School children have learned about how trees provide wind and heat protection as well as food and shelter. And today a visitor to Nebraska would never guess that it was once a dusty and treeless land.

“Arbor Day…is not like other holidays. Each of those reposes on the past, while Arbor Day proposes for the future.” —J. Sterling Morton

Earth Day

On April 22, 1970, 20 million Americans across the United States celebrated the first Earth Day. The goal of this event was to emphasize the critical importance of the environment and to make legislators and the American public aware of the growing destruction of the earth’s natural resources. The founder of Earth Day, Senator Gaylord Nelson, had hoped to start an environmental movement so large that it would force politicians to address environmental issues.

His efforts were successful. The first Earth Day got the attention of lawmakers, and as a result, environmental preservation became a national concern. That year the Environmental Protection Agency was created, and Congress amended the Clean Air Act to set new standards on air quality, and limits on pollution and auto emissions. Year after year new legislation was enacted to further protect and clean up the environment.

The idea for Earth Day came to Senator Nelson in 1969 while he was on a conservation speaking tour in California. Nelson had read about the anti-Vietnam War demonstrations and teach-ins on college campuses. This gave him the idea for Earth Day, which he envisioned as a similar kind of teach-in—a nationwide grassroots demonstration on behalf of the environment. With no sponsoring organization or formal plans for the event, Nelson announced the first Earth Day to be held the following spring on April 22—Arbor Day. The idea was embraced enthusiastically by people and organizations across the nation, and the event rapidly gained momentum.

Americans of all ages and from all walks of life celebrated the day in their towns and local communities. Musicians performed songs about nature and protection of the earth. Celebrities spoke about environmental issues, and explained what Americans could do to conserve and recycle. Federal agencies offered expositions showing their efforts in stopping wasteful practices and pollution of the environment. Conservation groups taught about the importance of rain forests and showed how their destruction would impact all life on the planet. Classrooms across the nation introduced curricula on ecology, nature and environmental preservation.

Earth Day continues to be celebrated every year, and has grown into a global event. It has helped Americans, and others the world over, realize that they are stewards of the earth, and they can and should do something to protect the environment.

Glossary (Arbor Day)

arbor:n. tree

environment:n. the air, soil, and living things around us

territory:n. a large area of land; a district or region

prairie:n. flat, grassy region of land

pioneer(s):n. a person who settles in new territory

advocate(d):v. to support; to argue strongly for an idea

barren:adj. not capable of producing new life; desolate

propose(d):v. to offer an idea

orchard(s):n. groves of fruit or nut trees planted for the purpose of cultivation

incentive(s):n. a physical or emotional reward that pushes you toward a goal

enthusiastically:adv. with great interest

declare(d):v. to officially name

adopt(ed):v. to take up and make one’s own, as an idea; to vote to accept

alternate:adj. available as another choice

wide-scale:adj. covering a large area

Glossary (Earth Day)

emphasize:v. to give special significance; to stress

legislator(s):n. people who make laws

movement:n. large-scale group activities toward the achievement of a goal

preservation:n. protection from harm or destruction

amend(ed):v. to change, as a law or regulation

pollution:n. the harmful contamination or destruction of the environment with man-made waste and chemicals

emission(s):n. carbon dioxide and other such harmful chemical substances sent (emitted) into the air from such things as automobiles and factories

enact(ed):v. to make into a law

conservation:n. protection of something such as resources, the environment, way of life

demonstration(s):n. a gathering of people for the purpose of public protest or support

teach-in(s):n. an educational demonstration or rally

envision(ed):v. to imagine; to form a mental picture

grassroot(s):adj. from people at a local level rather than a central organization or agency

sponsor(ing):adj. people or organizations that support and finance an activity

embrace(d):v. accepted enthusiastically

momentum:n. speed or force of motion

celebrity(ies):n. famous people

recycle:v. to use again; to process old material for new use

exposition(s):n. exhibit

impact(s):v. to have a strong effect on

steward(s):n. one who is responsible for the preservation and care of something

MOTHER’S DAY AND FATHER’S DAY
MAY AND JUNE

On Mother’s Day children of all ages make the day a special one for their mothers.
Boy Presenting Flowers to Mother © 2007 JupiterImages

This reading includes a description of the two most celebrated family days: Mother’s Day and Father’s Day. Though National Grandparents’ Day and International Children’s Day also exist, they are not as widely celebrated in the United States as Mother’s Day and Father’s Day.

Mother’s Day

On the second Sunday in May, American children of all ages treat their mothers to something special. It is the day when children, young and old, try to show, in a tangible way, how much they appreciate their mothers, or those who have served as mother figures in their lives.

England was one of the first countries to set aside a day to recognize mothers. In the eighteenth century when many people worked as household servants for the rich, “Mothering Sunday” was reserved for them to return home to be with their mothers. Though this custom changed when the Industrial Revolution altered people’s working and living patterns, mothers in England are still honored with a special day in March.

In the United States, the idea of Mother’s Day was first introduced in 1872 by Julia Ward Howe, a famous writer and social reformer of the time. However, the establishment of an official day to honor mothers was due largely to the perseverance and love of one daughter, Anna Jarvis. Anna’s mother had provided strength and support as the family made their home in West Virginia and then Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where Anna’s father served as a minister. As a girl, Anna had helped her mother take care of her garden, filled mostly with white carnations, her mother’s favorite flower. When Mrs. Jarvis died on May 5, 1905, Anna was determined to honor her. She asked the minister at her former church in West Virginia to give a sermon in her mother’s memory. On the same Sun-day, their minister in Philadelphia also honored Mrs. Jarvis, and all mothers, with a special Mother’s Day service.Anna Jarvis began writing to members of congress, asking them to set aside a day to honor mothers. In 1910, the governor of West Virginia proclaimed the second Sunday in May as Mother’s Day. A year later, every state was celebrating it, and in 1914 President Woodrow Wilson declared the first national Mother’s Day.

On Mother’s Day morning, some American children follow the tradition of serving their mothers breakfast in bed. Other children will give their mothers gifts that they have made themselves or bought in stores. Adults also give their mothers cards, gifts, and flowers—often red carnations, the official Mother’s Day flower. If their mothers are deceased, they may bring white carnations or other flowers to their gravesites. Mother’s Day is the busiest day of the year for American restaurants. On her special day, family members do not want Mom to have to cook dinner!

Father’s Day

The United States is one of the few countries in the world that has an official day on which fathers are honored by their children. On the third Sunday in June, fathers, and all men who act as father figures, all across the United States are given presents, treated to dinner, or otherwise made to feel special.

The origin of Father’s Day is not clear. Some say that it began with a church service in West Virginia in 1908. Others say the first Father’s Day was held in Vancouver, Washington. Another story claims that the president of the Chicago Lions’ Club, Harry Meek, celebrated the first Father’s Day with his organization in 1915, choosing the third Sunday in June, the date closest to his birthday!

Regardless of when the first Father’s Day occurred, the strongest promoter of the holiday was Sonora Smart Dodd of Spokane, Washington. She thought of the idea of a Father’s Day while she was listening to a Mother’s Day sermon. Mrs. Dodd felt that she had an outstanding father. He was a veteran of the Civil War. His wife had died young, and he had raised six children alone, without their mother. When Mrs. Dodd became an adult she recognized with great appreciation the sacrifices her father had made, and the remarkable job he had done as a single parent.

In 1909, Mrs. Dodd approached her minister and others in Spokane about having a church service dedicated to fathers on June 5, her father’s birthday. That date was too soon for her minister to prepare the service, so he presented it a few weeks later on June 19th. From then on, the state of Washington celebrated the third Sunday in June as Father’s Day. Children made special desserts, or visited their fathers if they lived apart.

States and organizations began lobbying Congress to declare an annual Father’s Day. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson approved of this idea, but it was not until 1924 that President Calvin

Coolidge made it a national event. He declared that the official recognition of Father’s Day was to “establish more intimate relations between fathers and their children and to impress upon fathers the full measure of their obligations.” Since then, fathers have been honored and recognized by their families throughout the country on the third Sunday in June. In 1966, President Lyndon Johnson signed a presidential proclamation making Father’s Day a national commemorative day.

When children can’t visit their fathers, they usually contact them by telephone or email, or they may send a greeting card. The cards might be traditional and sentimental, or whimsical so fathers laugh when they open them. Father’s Day gifts may be store-bought or hand-made, and traditional gifts might include a tie, shirt, sports item, or a child’s own drawing. Some children give their fathers heartfelt thanks for always being there when they needed “Dad.”

Glossary (Mother’s Day)

tangible:adj. concrete; something which can be seen or held

mother figure:n. phrase. person who acts as a mother in a child’s life such as a grandmother, stepmother, aunt, sister, good friend

household:adj. relating to the home

honor(ed):v. to remember with respect and thanks

reformer:n. person who works to bring about social change

perseverance:n. trying again and again without giving up

minister:n. the religious leader in a Protestant church

determined:adj. stubbornly certain of attaining a goal

service:n. a weekly or special religious ceremony generally held in a church or other place of worship

proclaim(ed):v. to officially name; to declare

gravesite(s):n. place where a person is buried

Glossary (Father’s Day)

father figure(s):n. phrase. person who acts as a father in a child’s life such as a grandfather, stepfather, uncle, brother, good friend

treat(ed):v. to give or provide without cost, such as a meal or entertainment

Lions Club:n. an international volunteer organization assisting those in need with such things as vision and health screening, supporting eye hospitals, and assisting youth

promoter:n. supporter

sermon:n. a speech delivered in public, usually by a religious leader as part of a religious gathering

outstanding:adj. very special; high quality; excellent

veteran:n. one who has been a member of the armed forces (army, navy, etc.)

appreciation:n. thankfulness

sacrifice(s):n. something given up in exchange for something else; e.g., to give up one’s opportunity in order to help another person be successful

single parent:n. phrase. one parent alone raising a child or children

approach(ed):v. present someone with an idea or proposal

minister:n. a clergy or religious leader, especially in the Protestant church

dedicate(d):v. to observe or have in honor of

lobby(ing):v. to urge officials or members of Congress to vote a certain way on an issue

impress upon:v. phrase. to attempt to convince

full measure:n. phrase. complete, entire

obligation(s):n. responsibilities; duties

proclamation:n. an official public announcement

commemorative:adj. describing something done to remember a person or an event

sentimental:adj. especially emotional

whimsical:adj. funny in a light way

heartfelt:adj. sincere; from the heart

being there:v. phrase. being available, present, supportive

GRADUATIONS
MAY – JUNE

College graduates wear the traditional gown and cap with a tassel.
Graduates © Superstock, Inc.

Graduation ceremonies celebrate the completion of one part of a person’s education. The ceremony marks a transition from one stage in a student’s life to another. A university graduation ceremony is also called “commencement” since it is a recognition that a student is beginning a new phase of life. Typically, the most important graduations are when a student completes high school (secondary school), college, or university. However, it is becoming more common to see graduations for young children at pre-school or kindergarten, and other children who finish their sixth or eighth year of schooling.

Most graduations in the United States occur in May and June, but some are as early as mid-April or as late as the first week in July.Mid-year college graduation ceremonies typically are in December or January.

At a typical graduation ceremony, students (as well as the teachers and professors) wear the traditional cap and gown. The gowns, also called robes, typically are mid-calf in length with bell-shaped sleeves. Usually university gowns are black, but the gowns used in high school ceremonies may reflect school colors. A gown worn by a person with a doctorate degree has three black velvet stripes on each sleeve, and a velvet strip running down the front of the gown.

The academic cap usually has a flat top and is also known as a “mortarboard.” The cap also has a tassel suspended from a button in the top center. When properly worn, the cap is parallel to the ground, though some people, especially women, wear it angled back. While traditions vary, in the United States it is common for university undergraduate students to begin the commencement ceremony with their tassels on the right. Once the adminstrator has announced that these students are now officially graduates, they move the tassel to the left side of their cap. Switching the tassel to the left is done individually in some ceremonies or as a group in others. From this point on, if a student wears a mortarboard again to receive a higher level graduate degree, he or she continues to wear the tassel on the left. Depending on the level of schooling and the institution, the tassel’s color may represent the school, the field of study, or simply be decorative.

The academic hood is the identifying symbol of an advanced degree, and the colors identify the college that is awarding the degree. Though it is called a “hood” it actually resembles a cape draped over one’s back. The color of the velvet strip indicates the field of study in which the individual’s most advanced degree was earned. The most frequently seen colors are white for liberal arts, yellow for science, light blue for education, pink for music, lemon yellow for library science, drab blue for business, black and white for journalism, purple for law, scarlet for divinity, blue for philosophy, and green for medicine.

When students receive their degrees, they usually march onto a stage or platform to listen to speeches before receiving their diplomas. In American high schools, colleges, and universities, the speakers may include the salutatorian (the student who has the second-highest average grades in the graduating class), an alumnus of the institution, or possibly a famous speaker not associated with the institution, and the valedictorian (the student with the highest grade point average in the graduating class). Common themes of graduation speeches include wishing the graduates well in the “real world,” celebrating an incredible achievement, and letting them know that life after school is not the end of the world—in fact, it’s the beginning.

The giving of diplomas usually takes up the longest portion of the ceremony. One by one the graduates come forward as their names are called. Sometimes the announcer will give the graduate’s major field of study. An academic administrator or official, such as the principal or school superintendent of a high school, or the dean of the college, gives each student a diploma and shakes his or her hand. After the awarding of diplomas, a school official announces that these students are now graduates; usually there is much clapping and cheering from the graduates, the school’s teachers and administrators, and the graduates’ friends and families. Sometimes the graduates throw their caps into the air. After the ceremony, there are often dinners and parties to honor the new grads.

Glossary

commencement:n. the beginning; a university degree ceremony

cap and gown:n. traditional head covering and robe worn for graduation ceremonies

velvet:n. a fabric with a soft, smooth, dense pile and plain back

mortarboard:n. a cap topped by a flat square worn for college graduation

tassel:n. a bunch of loose threads bound together at one end and hanging free at the other, used as an ornament

liberal arts:phrase. a course of studies in an American university or college in such fields of study as foreign languages, English, literature, philosophy, history, abstract sciences (psychology, sociology)

drab:adj. dull, light color

divinity:n. a field of study in an American university or college relating to religious studies or theology

diploma(s):n. a document issued by a university or other school testifying that a student has earned a degree or completed a particular course of study

salutatorian:n. the student, usually ranked second highest in class, who pronounces the welcome address at a college or university graduation ceremony

alumnus:n. a former student

valedictorian:n. a student, usually ranked highest in the graduating class, who delivers the farewell oration at commencement

major:n. an academic specialization chosen by students in a college or university

FLAG DAY
JUNE 14

An American flag flies proudly in the sun.
U.S. Flag © Photodisc/Getty Images

National flags are not merely symbols of a country. Their colors and designs convey past history and future goals. Flags have powerful connotations. They speak to the people and politicians. Flags show identity and are flown by international carriers and transport vehicles for this purpose. Flags show national pride; many athletes, for example, after winning an international sports event drape themselves with their national flag.

It is interesting to point out that the United States did not even have a standardized flag until 1912.Called the “Stars and Stripes,” or “Old Glory,” the flag is one of the more complicated in the world, requiring 64 pieces of fabric to make. The current flag has thirteen red and white alternating stripes (representing the original 13 states) and fifty stars (each star representing one of the states of the Union) on a blue background.

The American flag has changed designs more than any other flag in the world. The first flag, called the “Grand Union,” designed by George Washington, was flown at the headquarters of the Continental Army on January 1, 1776. This flag contained the British flag, the “Union Jack,” in the upper left corner, and had thirteen stripes of red and white.On June 14, 1777, after the Declaration of Independence, Congress proposed that the United States have its own national flag instead of showing the British “ Union Jack.” The new design replaced the “ Union Jack” with thirteen white stars on a blue field. The thirteen stars of the flag represented the thirteen new states. The following remark about the design is attributed to Washington:

We take the stars from heaven, the red from our mother country, separate it by white stripes, thus showing that we have separated from her...

It is not known who actually designed this flag. Betsy Ross, a seamstress, is said to have contributed to its design. She had an upholstery business, which made flags for navy ships in Pennsylvania. A legend still persists that she showed George Washington how to make a five-pointed star, and suggested thirteen stars in a circle for the first flag. Her descendants claimed that she offered Washington the design. Actually, it is unknown whether she and George Washington ever met.

There were few public ceremonies honoring the “Stars and Stripes” until 1877. In that year, on June 14, the first official Flag Day was observed, and Congress requested that the flag be flown from every government building in honor of the centennial of the adoption of a national flag. Schools had unfurled American flags over their doors or outside the building long before this; but in 1890,North Dakota and New Jersey made a law that required their schools to fly the flag daily. New York was the first state to proclaim June 14 as Flag Day, to be celebrated as an annual event. Other states were slow to follow. Some people thought that the day was too close to Memorial Day and Independence Day. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed Flag Day a national celebration.

In August 1949, President Harry S. Truman signed the national Flag Day Bill, officially recognizing June 14 as Flag Day. Since then, the President proclaims the commemoration yearly, and encourages all Americans in the country to display the “Stars and Stripes” outside their homes and businesses. Individual states determine how they will observe the day. Usually the flag is flown from all public buildings, speeches are made in public places, and ceremonies take place in some towns and cities.

Until 2002, elementary school children across the nation recited the Pledge of Allegiance in front of the flag every weekday morning. However, many people felt that this requirement violated individual rights outlined in the U.S. Constitution. Some people also felt that the words, “under God,” which had been added to the Pledge in 1954, had no place in a patriotic pledge, and should be removed. Much debate and controversy arose over these issues, and on June 25, 2002, the 9th Circuit Federal Court of Appeals ruled unconstitutional the requirement that public school children recite the Pledge of Allegiance. Private schools and institutions were free to make their own decisions about the pledge. The words, “under God,” remain in the pledge:

I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.

Americans take the treatment of their flag seriously, and in the 20th century this became an important and sometimes controversial issue. Included in the code of ethics governing the handling, use, and display of the flag are such rules as: The national flag should be flown between sunrise and sunset, except on some special occasions. Though it is not illegal to fly the flag 24 hours a day, it should be spotlighted if flown at night. It cannot cover a monument or any ceiling. It must not be folded while being displayed. No one should write on an American flag. Ships can lower their flags slightly in greeting each other, as can military color guard in ceremonies, but otherwise it should not be dipped for any other object or person. The flag should not be hung upside down, unless done so as a distress signal. The flag is flown at half-mast in honor of a national hero or leader upon his or her death, or to honor a celebrity or group of people such as soldiers who gave so much, including their lives, for their country.

As in every country of the world, the treatment of the flag displays an opinion or statement. In the late 1960s, American students wore small flags sewn to their clothing and draped flags around their shoulders, symbolically challenging the American government and protesting its involvement in the Vietnam War. They burned the American flag in front of the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C., as a statement of protest. In the early 1990s, senators suggested an amendment to the Constitution that would make wearing and burning of the flag illegal. The proposition was opposed because many others felt that this change would be a violation of Americans’ constitutional rights to express their opinions freely.

The flag is one of the nation’s most powerful and significant symbols, and as such, is celebrated every June 14th in the United States. In fact, the symbolic nature of the flag is what inspired the U.S. national anthem. In September 1814, during the War of 1812 between the British and Americans, a lawyer named Francis Scott Key watched a fiery battle in the Baltimore Harbor. The morning after the battle he saw the flag waving, and was inspired to write a poem. This poem became the national anthem, “The Star Spangled Banner.” The actual flag from that battle is on exhibit at the Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.

Glossary

convey:v. to suggest; to show; to carry meaning

connotation:n. meaning; suggestion

drape:v. to cover or hang with fabric

standardize(d):v. to make to look the same; to have common characteristics or goals

complicated:adj. having many parts; involved

fabric:n. cloth; material

Union:n. refers to the United States

seamstress:n. woman whose profession is sewing

upholstery:n. materials such as cloth, leather, and padding used to make a soft covering, usually for furniture

descendant(s):n. children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren

centennial:n. one hundred year anniversary

adoption:n. taking as one’s own

unfurl(ed):v. to unroll; to unfold

bill:n. law

commemoration:n. a ceremony or observation to remember someone or a group or event or action

recite(d):v. to say out loud from memory or read out loud

Pledge of Allegiance:phrase. the oath of fidelity to the United States.

To pledge is to make a serious promise or agreement.

Allegiance refers to loyalty or faithfulness to a government or group.

indivisible:adj. cannot be divided into smaller parts

controversial:adj. pertaining to opposing, disputed, or debatable views

issue:n. a topic or matter of discussion

code of ethics:phrase. a set of moral issues and of what is good and bad conduct or behavior; a set of issues defining what actions or activities are right and what is wrong

dip(ped):v. to lower slightly

upside down:adv. with the top turned so as to be positioned on the bottom

distress:adj. emergency; of great trouble

amendment:n. an addition or change

anthem:n. a song that is symbolic of a people, a group, a culture, a movement; usually a song of praise

inspire(d):v. to encourage; to give an idea to

The Star Spangled Banner

Moderately, with spirit

Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light,

What so proudly we hail’d at the twilight’s last gleam-ing?

Whose broad stripes and bright stars, thro’ the perilous fight

O’er the ramparts we watch’d were so gallantly streaming?

And the rockets’ red glare, the bombs bursting in air,

Gave proof thro’ the night that our flag was still there.

Oh, say does that Star Spangled Banner yet wave –

O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

JUNETEENTH
JUNE 19

Harriet Tubman, who played a major role in freeing millions of slaves in the 1850s, at her home in 1911.
Harriet Tubman, full-length portrait, seated in chair, facing front, probably at her home in Auburn, NY ©Library of Congress, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, LC-DIG-ppmsca-02909.

Juneteenth is the oldest celebration in the nation to commemorate the end of slavery in the United States. The word “Juneteenth” comes from a colloquial pronunciation of “June 19th,” which is the date celebrations commemorate.

In 1863 President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, officially freeing slaves. However, word of the Proclamation did not reach many parts of the country right away, and instead the news spread slowly from state to state. The slow spread of this important news was in part because the American Civil War had not yet ended. However, in 1865 the Civil War ended and Union Army soldiers began spreading the news of the war’s end and Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation.

On June 19, 1865, Major General Gordon Granger and Union Army soldiers arrived in Galveston, Texas. On his arrival, one of General Granger’s first acts was to publicly read General Order Number 3, which began:

The people of Texas are informed that in accordance with a Proclamation from the [President] of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and free laborer.

With this announcement the last 250,000 slaves in the United States were effectively freed. Afterward many of the former slaves left Texas. As they moved to other states to find family members and start new lives, they carried news of the June 19th event with them. In subsequent decades former slaves and their descendants continued to commemorate June 19th and many even made pilgrimages back to Galveston, Texas to celebrate the event.

Most of the celebrations initially took place in rural areas and included activities such as fishing, barbeques, and family reunions. Church grounds were also often the sites for these celebrations. As more and more African Americans improved their economic conditions and became land owners, tracts of land were purchased specifically for hosting events such as Juneteenth. One of the first documented land purchases specifically for holding Juneteenth celebrations was organized by Reverend Jack Yates. Through fund-raising efforts, he raised $1000 and purchased what became known as Emancipation Park in Houston, Texas.

Juneteenth celebrations began declining in the 1920s and 1930s, in part because of severe economic difficulties, especially the Great Depression. However events during the 1950s and ’60s, including the Civil Rights Movement, led to a resurgence in Juneteenth celebrations. As national attention focused on improving rights for African Americans, the interest in remembering and celebrating important African-American events increased. In 1968 Reverend Ralph Abernathy led the Poor Peoples’ March to Washington, D.C. This event called for people of all races, creeds, and economic levels to meet and show support for the poor. Many of those who attended returned home and revived Juneteenth celebrations as a way of educating and empowering their communities. In fact, two of the largest Juneteenth celebrations taking place today were founded after this march and take place yearly in two cities in the state of Minnesota—Milwaukee and Minneapolis—cities that had not previously held Juneteenth celebrations.

On January 1, 1980, Juneteenth became an official state holiday in Texas, making it the first, and only, officially recognized emancipation celebration. Since then Juneteenth has gradually grown in popularity throughout the United States. Today Juneteenth is celebrated as an occasion for encouraging self-development and respect for all cultures. Juneteenth is commemorated as a day, week, and sometimes a month, marked with parades, family reunions, barbeques, historical reenactments, and educational speeches.

Glossary

colloquial:adj. informal way of speaking or pronouncing words

Emancipation Proclamation:n. the government document that officially proclaimed or stated American slaves to be free. The word emancipation refers to setting someone or something free. A proclamation is a public or formal announcement.

American Civil War: the war fought in the U.S. from 1861 to 1865 between non-slave states in the north (by the Union army) and slave-owning states in the south (by the Confederate army)

Union:n refers to the United States

heretofore:adv. up to this time

effectively:adv. actually

descendant(s):n. a person related to someone who lived in the past

pilgrimage(s):n. travel to a place that holds special meaning

tract(s):n. a section of land

host(ing):v. to receive people and provide services for an occasion

document(ed):adj. evidence providing proof of an event

Great Depression:phrase. a drastic decline in the world economy from 1929 to 1939 that resulted in widespread unemployment and poverty

resurgence:n. a rise in popularity after a period of declining or absent popularity

Reverend:n. a title of respect applied to a member of the clergy or religious leader, usually in the Protestant faith

creed(s):n. a set of beliefs

revive(d):v. to make something popular again

barbeque(s):n. a meal in which the food is cooked over charcoal or an open fire outside

reenactment(s):n. a performance of an event that took place in the past

HALLOWEEN
OCTOBER 31

Calling out “trick or treat,” children dressed in costumes knock on their neighbors’ doors with bags held out for candies and other treats.
Trick or Treaters © 2007 JupiterImages

On October 31st, dozens of children dressed in costumes knock on their neighbors’ doors and yell, “Trick or Treat” when the door opens. Pirates and princesses, ghosts, and popular heroes and heroines of the day all hold bags open to catch the candy or other goodies that the neighbors drop in. As they give each child a treat, the neighbors exclaim over the costumes and try to guess who is under the masks.

Like some other American holidays, Halloween customs evolved from a mix of traditions. The word “Halloween” comes from the name of a holiday from the 800s AD, called All Hallows’ Eve. This was the day and evening before All Saints’ Day, a holy day that was celebrated on November 1st. The origins of Halloween go back even further, however. In ancient times, October 31st was the eve of the Celtic New Year. The Celts, who lived over 2,000 years ago, were the ancestors of the present-day Irish, Welsh, and Scottish people. On this day, the Celts held the festival of Samhain in honor of the Celtic lord of the dead. In the evening, Samhain allowed ghosts to walk and mingle with the living, or so the Celts thought. The townspeople baked food all that day, and when night came, they dressed up in animal heads and skins, and attended a great bonfire, set by their priests, the Druids. Hoping that the ghosts would leave peacefully before the new year, the people carried the food they had made to the edge of town and left it for the spirits to find. The celebration of Samhain also marked the end of the harvest season, and the beginning of the cold, dark time of year.

Much later, when October 31 was no longer the last day of the year, autumn festivals continued to be held, celebrating the harvest and honoring the dead. Over time, however, Halloween became a celebration mostly for children. “Ghosts” went from door to door asking for treats, or else a trick would be played on the owners of the house. When millions of Irish, British, and others from Celtic regions immigrated to the United States in the 1840s, the traditions came with them.

Today, many schools plan Halloween festivities, and some neighborhoods hold parties, often called “block parties” which are popular among young and old alike. More recently, adults have begun to celebrate Halloween, too. They dress up like historical or political figures, movie stars, or cartoon characters, and go to masquerade parties or city-sponsored street parties. In many towns and cities, costumed children and their parents gather at shopping malls early in the evening. Stores and businesses give parties, with games and treats for the children. Teenagers enjoy costume dances at their schools, and the more outrageous the costume the better!

Certain pranks such as soaping car windows and tipping over garbage cans are expected. But partying and pranks are not the only things that Halloween revelers enjoy doing. Some collect money to buy food and medicine for needy children around the world. Others may sponsor a Halloween party, or donate money or costumes for needy children locally.

At Halloween parties, children play games, listen to ghost stories, enjoy snacks, and decorate their Halloween “trick-or-treat” bag for the evening. One traditional Halloween game is bobbing for apples. One child at a time has to get an apple from a tub of water without using any hands! How? By sinking his or her face into the water and biting into the apple!

Symbols of Halloween

Halloween originated in part as a celebration connected with evil spirits and the dead. Witches flying on broomsticks with black cats, ghosts, goblins, and skeletons have all evolved as symbols of Halloween. They are popular as trick-or-treat costumes, and decorations for greeting cards and windows. Black is one of the traditional Halloween colors, probably because Halloween festivals and traditions took place at night and also marked the beginning of winter darkness. In the weeks before October 31, retail shops and school windows are decorated with silhouettes of witches and black cats. Some people decorate their front door with Halloween symbols or fake spider webs. Others create elaborate and scary scenes, such as spooky graveyards, on their front lawns.

Pumpkins are also a symbol of Halloween. Since the pumpkin is a large, orange-colored squash, orange has become the other traditional Halloween color. Carving pumpkins into jack-o’-lanterns is a Halloween custom dating back to Ireland. A legend grew up about a man named Jack who was so stingy that he was not allowed into heaven when he died. His spirit was doomed to wander around the countryside, holding a lantern to light his way.

The Irish people carved scary faces out of turnips representing “Jack of the Lantern,” or Jack-o’-lantern. When the Irish brought their customs to the United States, they carved faces on pumpkins because in the autumn, pumpkins were more plentiful than turnips. Today a jack-o’-lantern, with a candle lit and glowing inside, is placed in the window or on the front porch of a house on Halloween night to let costumed children know that there are goodies waiting if they knock on the door and say “Trick or Treat!”

Glossary

costume(s):n. clothes, make-up, masks and other things such as jewelry worn so as to look like or give the illusion of being like another person, from another time period, or of being like something else such as a ghost or monster

“Trick or Treat”: phrase. an expression used by children at Halloween: “Give us a treat, or we’ll play a joke on you!”

pirate(s):n. a robber on the sea

goody(ies):n. sweet food that children like to eat

treat:n. a reward, usually a sweet food

exclaim over:v. phrase. to admire openly

hallow:v. to make sacred or holy; to make highly respected

ancestor(s):n. family member who came before, such as grandparent, great-grand parent and so on.

mingle:v. to mix with; to join with

dress up:v. to wear a costume

bonfire:n. a large public fire, around which people may gather for a party or celebration

harvest:adj. referring to the time of year when crops are ripe and ready to gather

outrageous:adj. shocking; elaborate or wild in design

prank(s):n. a trick or mischievous act

soap(ing):v. to cover with soap

reveler(s):n. people who are celebrating

ghost story(-ies):n. phrase. a scary or frightening story about ghosts, goblins or evil spirits

bob(bing):v. to move up and down briefly and repeatedly

originate(d):v. to begin or start a practice or tradition

witch(es):n. a woman that is believed to have supernatural powers; some are believed to be good, but most are considered to be evil and use black magic

goblin(s):n. an evil or tricky spirit

skeleton(s):n. the bone framework of a body

evolve(d):v. to develop over a long period of time

silhouette(s):n. the shadow-like shape of something seen from the side; an outline of something or someone, filled in with black

fake:adj. artificial; false

elaborate:adj. complicated in design

spooky:adj. scary, frightening

graveyard:n. a place (cemetery) where people bury (put under the ground) their dead, or place their dead in tombs above ground

squash:n. a round or long vegetable belonging to the gourd family

carve(-ing): to cut a design carefully with a knife

jack-o-lantern:n. phrase. a pumpkin which has been carved with a scary or funny face

legend:n. a story passed from one generation to another

stingy:adj. unwilling to share

doom(ed):v. to judge against; condemn or send to a terrible fate or punishment

wander:v. to walk without a goal

turnip(s):n. a large root eaten as a vegetable

BIRTHDAYS AND ANNIVERSARIES

A birthday girl blows out the candles on her birthday cake.
Child's birthday party © Stockbyte/Getty Images

Anniversary celebrations are those that commemorate a particular date or past event. This might be an historical event, such as the first walk on the Moon; a military event, such as the beginning or ending of a war; a national event, such as the birth of a nation or the signing of a constitution; or a more personal event, such as the opening of a new business or the receipt of an award. Usually when we refer to anniversaries we are referring to a yearly event, but people may also choose to celebrate monthly or biannually. A large celebration might be held on a centennial anniversary. An anniversary celebration ranges from a small personal event such as a dinner for two people, to a large city-wide event such as a parade or fireworks. Anniversary celebrations might be accompanied by balloons, flowers, special meals, or presents. In this reading, we discuss two common celebrations: birthdays and wedding anniversaries.

Birthdays

Birthdays are celebrated in a variety of ways in the United States. A birthday is considered a special day for the birthday person, so the person will often get special treatment from friends and family.

Children are usually very excited about their birthdays. At a very early age, children know when their birthdays are and how old they are. Parents often host a party on their children’s birthdays. They will invite school friends, neighbors, or family members. It is expected that the people who are invited to a child’s birthday party will bring a present for the birthday child, unless they are told not to. The birthday party will undoubtedly feature a birthday cake topped with lighted candles, one candle for each year. As the cake is brought to the table, everyone sings “Happy Birthday.” When the cake is set before the birthday boy or birthday girl, he or she is supposed to make a wish (without telling anyone what it is) and blow out the candles. If all the candles go out with one breath, then the wish is supposed to come true. Ice cream is usually served with the cake. Children often open their presents after the cake and ice cream are served.

Adults also celebrate their birthdays, though not as regularly as children. If someone wants to celebrate his/ her own birthday, he or she may plan a party and invite friends or family. It is more likely that an adult will have a party if the birthday is a “big” one, such as for an age that ends in 0 or 5. Another “big” one is the age of 21 when a person is considered to be an adult. Sometimes adults get gifts at a birthday party, but not always. And while it is customary to say “Happy Birthday,” it is not usually appropriate to ask an adult how old he or she is. At work, colleagues may celebrate a birthday by giving a group card, flowers, cake, or by taking the person out to lunch. Colleagues will often wish the person a happy birthday. However not all work places celebrate birthdays, and, in fact, many adults don’t want to celebrate their birthdays. Some people don’t like the reminder that they are continually getting older; others just don’t like being the center of attention.

Singing “Happy Birthday to You” when cake, flowers, or presents are given is a long-standing tradition. The song was written by two American sisters in 1893, and has been translated into several languages around the world.

Wedding Anniversaries

Wedding anniversaries occur on the same day of the year the wedding took place. Married couples have many different ways of celebrating, but it is common for them to give each other flowers or small gifts, or enjoy a special dinner together. Sometimes couples plan a trip for themselves to celebrate this special day. On a couple’s first wedding anniversary, it is customary for them to eat the top tier of their wedding cake that they had saved and frozen just for this day.

Many wedding anniversary celebrations are quiet events that include just the married couple, but sometimes, especially if the couple has been married a long time, they will plan a party that includes their children, grandchildren, and possibly siblings, nieces, and nephews. At some large wedding anniversary celebrations, such as a 50th anniversary, a granddaughter or other relative might wear the bride’s wedding dress. Sometimes the couple decides to renew their wedding vows in front of their progeny.

Traditionally, specific materials are associated with particular anniversary years. Usually, the longer the period of time, the more precious or durable is the material that is associated with it. Sometimes the couple—or their families—use the list for gift suggestions.

The traditional list includes:

1 year—paper anniversary
5 years—wood anniversary
10 years—tin or aluminum anniversary
20 years—china (porcelain) anniversary
25 years—silver anniversary
50 years—gold anniversary
75 years—diamond anniversary

Glossary

commemorate: v. to hold a ceremony or observation to remember someone or a group or event or action

biannual(ly): adv. occurring twice a year, also called “semi-annual.” Something that occurs every two years is biennial.

centennial: n. occuring once in a hundred years

fireworks: n. a display of explosive devices as part of a celebration

topped: adj. placed on top

birthday boy or girl: adj+n. a term commonly used to refer to a child on the day of his or her birth

customary: adj. commonly practiced or used as a matter of course; usual

tier: n. a layer

vow: n. a solemn promise or commitment to a

prescribed role, typically to marriage

progeny: n. a child or descendent

durable: adj. able to resist wear or decay well; lasting

RECOGNITION MONTHS

In the United States specific days, weeks, or months can be dedicated to a particular cause, movement, or issue. This is done in order to get people interested in or aware of that issue. Some of these issues or movements might be relatively little-known—such as Potato Lovers Month or Citizenship Day—or they may be quite well known and broadly celebrated. Examples of special days are Child Health Day (first Monday in October) and United Nations Day (October 24). Special weeks include Fire Prevention Week, National Library Week, and National Education Week.

To get a day, week, or month officially proclaimed and dedicated to a specific cause, a citizens group can petition the city, county, state, or federal government with its request. If the petition is accepted by a city government, the city mayor will make it official with a public proclamation. If it is for a state, the state governor will make such a proclamation. Usually there are announcements in newspapers about events that recognize the cause, often planned by civic groups, schools, businesses, or government organizations. For federally-recognized months, the President of the United States will make a public proclamation, citing the month and calling upon Americans to commemorate that month with appropriate programs and activities.

In this section we discuss four of the months that are commonly known in the USA and proclaimed and recognized by the Federal government: Black History Month, Women’s History Month, Asian Pacific American Heritage Month, and Hispanic Heritage Month.

Glossary

dedicate(d): v. set aside for a person or purpose; designed specifically for a person or purpose

cause: n. a socially valuable principle or moral standard

proclaim(ed): v. to declare officially

petition: n. a document signed by a large number of people requesting some action

commemorate: v. to honor a person or event

cite(ing): v. to officially name or mention something or someone

SELECTED FIRSTS
IN BLACK HISTORY

GOVERNMENT Originally born a slave, Joseph Rainey became politically active after the Civil War, working tirelessly for civil rights. In 1870 he became the first black U.S. Representative, eventually serving five terms as the representative for South Carolina.

SCIENCE AND MEDICINE In 1940, Charles Drew invented the blood bank, the method for collecting and storing large amounts of blood plasma for later use. In 1941 Drew also became the director of the first American Red Cross Blood Bank.

LITERATURE AND PUBLISHING In 1773, Phillis Wheatley published her book Poems on Various Subject, Religious and Moral. She is considered the founder of African-American literature.

FILM In 1919, Oscar Micheaux wrote, directed, and produced the film The Homesteader. Be-tween 1919 and 1948, Micheaux produced and directed more that 45 films, and was one of the few independent filmmakers to have such a long and successful career outside of Hollywood.

MUSIC In 1945, Todd Duncan became the first African-American singer in the New York City Opera. He later went on to create the role of Porgy in Gershwin’s famous musical Porgy and Bess.

AIR AND SPACE Robert H. Lawrence became the first black astronaut in 1967, but died in a plane crash before his first trip into space. In 1983, Guion Bluford became the first black astronaut to travel into space.

MILITARY Sergeant William H. Carney received the Congressional Medal of Honor for bravery during the Civil War. During the battle at Fort Wagner, South Carolina, in 1863, Carney took over the position of flag-bearer from a wounded soldier, safely delivering the flag through the battle. His deed is depicted on the Saint-Gaudens Monument in Boston, Massachusetts.

SPORTS Jackie Robinson became the first black major league baseball player in 1947, when he joined New York’s Brooklyn Dodgers. In 1962, Robinson also became the first African American to be elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame.

BLACK HISTORY MONTH
FEBRUARY

Black History Month is one of the most widely-celebrated of federal months. It was originally established in 1926 as Negro History Week by noted African-American author and Harvard University scholar, Dr. Carter G. Woodson. Dr. Woodson’s hope was that this special observance would remind all Americans of their ethnic roots, and that the commemoration would increase mutual respect. In 1976 the celebration was expanded to include the entire month, and it became known as Black History Month, also called African American History Month. The month of February was chosen since it contains the birthdays of Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglas. Lincoln is honored because of the Emancipation Proclamation (see page 16) that freed the slaves, and Douglas is honored as one of the most influential moral leaders, orators, and authors of American history.

One aim of Black History Month is to expose the harmful effects of racial prejudice; another is to recognize significant contributions made by people with African heritage, including artists, musicians, scientists, political figures, educators, and athletes. During February, cities, communities, and educational establishments feature speakers and community events, often focusing on the Civil Rights Movement. In classrooms, the legacy of Dr. Martin Luther King (see page 7) is commonly a part of the curriculum. Dr. King focused his energy on organizing peaceful protest demonstrations and marches, mostly in the American southern states. He led the great march on Washington, D.C. in 1963 where he gave his famous “I Have A Dream” speech (see page 9). Dr. King advocated a non-violent approach to social change following the philosophy of Mohandas Gandhi. Another community activist whose life is often a part of school curricula is Rosa Parks (see pages 7–8 ). In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to surrender her seat on the bus to a white passenger. By forcing the police to remove her, and then arrest and imprison her, she brought national attention to the civil rights movement. This incident later became a test case for repealing segregation laws.

Glossary

noted: adj. important

root(s): n. origin

mutual: adj. two or more people feeling the same thing or doing the same thing to each other

orator(s): n. a person who gives skillful or effective public speeches

expose: v. to uncover; to allow to be seen

feature: v. to include as a special item

activist: n. a person who actively works for a political party or for political change

surrender: v. to give up

repeal(ing): v. to make a law no longer have any legal force

SELECTED FIRSTS
IN WOMEN’S HISTORY

GOVERNMENT In 1916, Jeannette Rankin was the first woman elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. She served another term from 1941 to 1943. A lifelong pacifist, Rankin voted against going to war with Germany in 1917 (World War I), and was the only representative to vote against the U.S. entering World War II.

SCIENCE AND MEDICINE After being the first woman admitted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Ellen Swallow Richards also became the first professional chemist in the US after her graduation in 1873.

LITERATURE AND PUBLISHING Edith Wharton became the first woman to win a Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1921 for her novel The Age of Innocence. Wharton did not begin her writing career until she was almost 40 years old, and through her career published over 40 books.

FILM In 1896, Alice Guy Blache became the first American female film director with the release of her film The Cabbage Fairy. During her career she directed over 300 short films.

MUSIC In 1914, Mary Davenport-Engberg became the first woman to conduct a symphony orchestra in the United States.

AIR AND SPACE In 1932, Amelia Earhart became the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean. She flew from Harbor Grace, Newfoundland, to Ireland in about 15 hours. In 1937 Earhart attempted to fly around the world, but her plane disappeared. No one knows what happened to her.

MILITARY In 1993, Sheila Widnall was appointed Secretary of the Air Force, becoming the first woman to hold this high-level position for any branch of the U.S. military.

SPORTS In 1967, Althea Gibson became the first woman (and African American) to win the tennis singles title at Wimbledon. During her career, Gibson won ten straight national black women’s singles championships, and, in 1971, she was inducted into the National Lawn Tennis Hall of Fame.

WOMEN’S HISTORY MONTH
MARCH

Women’s History Month is one of the outcomes of a county-wide movement in Sonoma County, California, in the 1970s that brought a focus on women into school curricula as well as into the general public’s consciousness. In 1978, the Educational Task Force of the Sonoma County (California) Commission on the Status of Women initiated a “Women’s History Week.” The week of March 8 was chosen since March 8 is International Women’s Day. As word of the movement spread, State Departments of Education across the U.S. initiated similar changes to their curricula, and encouraged celebrations of women’s history as a means of achieving equity in classrooms. In 1987 the National Women’s History Project petitioned the United States Congress to recognize the whole month of March as National Women’s History Month. Since then, every year the House of Representatives and the United States Senate approve the designation.

March is celebrated with special programs and activities in schools, workplaces, and communities. Besides recognizing women’s achievements in such areas as science, math, politics, arts, and athletics, a common topic in school curricula is the women’s suffrage movement in the United States. Before 1920, women did not have the right to vote under the constitution. In the decade between 1910 and 1920, women organized and were involved in political demonstrations and marches across the United States. Though the vote was brought to the congress several times, it failed to pass. Finally in 1919, after years of picketing, petitioning, and protesting, the vote passed, resulting in the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution on August 26, 1920. In November 1920, women voted for the first time in a national election.

Glossary

outcome(s): n. a result or the effect of an action

consciousness: n. knowledge or awareness

initiate(d): v. to begin

equity: n. justice or fairness

designation: n. something chosen for a particular reason or purpose

suffrage: n. the right to vote in an election

right: n. a legal claim

decade: n. a period of ten years

picket(ing): v. to stand or demonstrate outside a building or place of work to prevent people from entering and working, as a means of political protest

petition(ing): v. to demand or request some action from a government or other authority

amendment: n. a change in a law

SELECTED FIRSTS
IN ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN HERITAGE

GOVERNMENT Representing California in 1956, Dalip Singh Saund became the first Asian-American U.S. Representative.

SCIENCE AND MEDICINE In 1957, Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang became the first Asian-Americans to win the Nobel Prize for physics. They were awarded the prize for disproving a quantum-physics law.

LITERATURE AND PUBLISHING In 1974, both Ken Kashiwahara and Connie Chung became the first Asian-American network news reporters. In 1993, Chung also became the first Asian-American news anchor (main reporter) for a major television station.

FILM In 1921, Anna May Wong became the first widely recognized Asian-American film star. In 1951, she also became the first Asian-American to have her own television series, “The Gallery of Madame Liu Tsong.”

AIR AND SPACE In 1932, Katherine Sui Fun Cheung became the first licensed Asian-American aviator. As a co-member of the woman-only aviation “99-Club” (headed by Amelia Earhart), Cheung participated in numerous aerial performances and races, eventually retiring from aviation after an accident destroyed her plane.

MILITARY In 1944, Calvin Chin and Anthony Loo Wong became the first Chinese Americans to be commissioned as second lieutenants (officers), after graduating from the Medical Administrative Corps Officer Candidate School at Camp Barkeley, Texas.

SPORTS In 1948, Richard Tom became the first Asian-American to win an Olympic medal. He received the Bronze Medal for weightlifting.

ASIAN PACIFIC AH HERITAGE MONTH
MAY

Much like Black History Month and Women’s History Month, Asian Pacific American Heritage Month originated with a congressional bill. Two Representatives introduced the bill to the House of Representatives and two senators introduced the bill to the Senate. Both of them passed, and U.S. President Jimmy Carter officially recognized Asian/Pacific Heritage Week on October 5, 1978. Several years later, in May 1990, President George H. W. Bush expanded it to a month, and designated it as Asian Pacific Heritage Month. The month of May was chosen in honor of the arrival of the first Japanese immigrants to the United States on May 7, 1843 and also the completion of the transcontinental railroad on May 10, 1869.

May is celebrated with community events that involve historical, educational, and cultural activities, and the recognition of famous Asian Americans in such fields as architecture, entertainment, athletics, education, art, and science. One historical period often discussed in school curricula in May is the building of the first railroad that spanned the American continent. This railroad, largely built by Chinese immigrants, is considered one of the crowning achievements of President Abraham Lincoln, even though it was completed four years after his death. To build the railroad, the Union Pacific Railroad began in Nebraska, and worked westward through Colorado and Wyoming to Utah. At the same time, the Central Pacific Railroad began in California, and moved eastward through Nevada to Utah, carving out places for railroad tracks in high mountain peaks. The two railroad companies met in the town of Promontary, Utah, where they drove in the final “golden spike” that brought together the east and west

coasts of the American continent. This feat revolutionized the economy and population of the U.S. It caused the wagon trains to be obsolete, and affected commerce, trade, and travel across the continent.

Glossary

congressional: adj. of an elected group of representatives

bill: n. a proposed law in government

designate(d): v. to officially choose for a particular reason or purpose

transcontinental: adj. extending across a continent

span(ned): v. to cross the length between two points

largely: adv. mostly; almost completely

crown(ing): adj. greatest

drive: v. to provide the power to make something happen; to pound in

spike: n. a narrow thin shape with a point on one end, usually metal

feat: n. an action that involves risk or difficulty

wagon train: n. a group or line of vehicles with four wheels, pulled by animals

obsolete: adj. not in use anymore because something more modern has replaced it

affect(ed): v. to cause to change

SELECTED FIRSTS
IN HISPANIC HISTORY

GOVERNMENT Romualdo Pacheco became the first Hispanic-American U.S. Representative when he won the California seat in 1876 by a one-vote lead. Four months later the win was overturned in favor of his opponent, but in 1879, Pacheco was again elected and went on to serve two terms.

SCIENCE AND MEDICINE In 1968, Luiz Walter Al-varez won the Nobel Prize in physics for his discoveries about subatomic particles. Alvarez held patents for over 30 different inventions and was inducted into the Inventor’s Hall of Fame. Along with a few other scientists, Alvarez and his son were the first to propose the now-accepted theory that the mass extinction of dinosaurs was caused by a meteor impact.

LITERATURE AND PUBLISHING Released in 1872, Maria Amparo Ruiz de Burton’s novel Who Would Have Thought It? became the first English novel written and published in the U.S. by an Hispanic American.

FILM In 1961, Rita Moreno became the first His-panic American to win the Best Supporting Actress Oscar award for her performance in the film West Side Story. She is also the first Hispanic American to win all of the major acting awards offered in the U.S., the Oscar, Grammy, Tony, and Emmy awards.

MUSIC In 1912, Lucrezia Bori became the first His-panic American opera diva when she debuted at the Metropolitan Opera. She was a leading performer at the Metropolitan Opera from 1912 – 1915, and again from 1920 – 1936. In 1935, Bori became director of the Metropolitan Opera Association.

AIR AND SPACE In 1986, Franklin Chang-Diaz became the first Hispanic-American astronaut. He flew on seven space shuttle missions during his career, his first time on the space shuttle “Columbia” in 1986.

MILITARY In 1866, David Farragut became the first U.S. Navy officer in history to reach the rank of Admiral.

SPORTS Roberto Clemente was the first Hispanic-American to serve on the baseball Players Association Board, and in 1973, he also became the first Hispanic-American baseball player inducted into the Hall of Fame.

HISPANIC HERITAGE MONTH
SEPTEMBER 15–OCTOBER 15

Hispanic Heritage Month began as National Hispanic Heritage Week in 1968, proclaimed as such by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson. It was expanded to a month-long celebration in 1988. This month celebrates the traditions and cultures of all Americans who trace their roots to Spain, Mexico, and the Spanish-speaking nations of Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. September 15 was chosen since it is the anniversary of independence of five countries: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. In addition, Mexico celebrates its independence on September 15th, and Chile on September 18th.

Celebrations in September and October often include cultural activities and programs with speeches, food, dance, and music that recognize the political, artistic, athletic, and educational achievements of Hispanic Americans. One well-known political activist was Cesar Chavez who was the major force in the Labor Movement of the 1960s. Cesar Chavez was born to a poor family on a farm in Arizona in 1927. As a young child of ten, he was forced into migrant farm labor. Despite these obstacles, he grew up to be a gifted leader and organizer. As a person well aware of the inequities that affected American farm laborers, in 1962 he founded the National Farm Workers Association in California which focused on working for collective bargaining and a minimum wage for farm workers. In 1966, this association merged with other unions, forming the United Farm Workers, which advocated strikes, boycotts, and marches to bring about political change. Chavez adhered to the philosophy of Martin Luther King by working in non-violent ways to achieve equity. In 1968 the United Farm Workers advocated a widespread boycott of California grapes, finally signing a contract with the grape growers in 1970. Chavez then continued with a boycott of California lettuce. He died in 1993, but received a posthumous National Medal of Honor Award in 1994 from President Bill Clinton, the highest civilian award that is given by the U.S. government.

Glossary

expand(ed): v. to increase

trace: v. to discover the cause or origin of something

migrant: n. someone who moves from place to place, often relating to the harvest industry

inequity(ies): n. a lack of equality or fair treatment

found(ed): to bring something into existence

collective bargain(ing): phrase. a system in which employees talk as a group to their employers to try to agree on issues such as pay and conditions of work

wage: n. a fixed amount of money that is paid regularly, usually for work that requires physical skills or strength

advocate(d): v. to speak in support of an idea or course of action

strike(s): n. a refusal to continue working because of an argument with an employer about working conditions or pay

boycott: n. a refusal to buy or support something in order to express strong disapproval, usually based on political, economic, or social reasons adhere(d) to: v. to maintain a belief or standard

widespread: adj. existing in many places

posthumous: adj. happening after a person’s death

GLOSSARY

A

abolish: v. to end or terminate by law or decree

abolition: n. an ending or termination of by law

absenteeism: n. the incidence of missed workdays by employees because of illness or other reasons

accompany: v. to go with

acknowledgment: n. statement or gesture that shows knowledge or appreciation

acquaintance: n. a friend, but not a close friend

activist: n. a person who actively works for political or social change

adhere to: v. to maintain a belief or standard

adopt: v. to take up and make one’s own, as an idea; to vote to accept

adoption: n. taking as one’s own

advantage: n. benefit, gain or profit

advocate: v. to speak in support of an idea or course of action

affect: v. to cause to change

affection: n. fondness; a deep, warm, good feeling

affiliation: n. association; connection

alcohol-free: adj. no alcoholic beverages are sold or allowed

allegiance: n. loyalty

Allies: n. those nations (primarily the British Empire, France, and the Russian Empire) that joined together in opposition to the Central Powers (Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Turkey) during World War I

aloft: adv. above one’s head; high up in the air

alternate: adj. available as another choice

alumnus: n. a former student

amend: v. to change, as a law or regulation

amendment: n. an addition or change in a law

American Civil War: the war fought in the U.S. from 1861 to 1865 between non-slave states in the north (by the Union army) and slave-owning states in the south (by the Confederate army)

American Legion: phrase. a national association of former servicemen and servicewomen

amid: adv. in a place among a group of items or individuals

ancestor: n. family member who came before, such as grandparent or great-grand parent

ancient: adj. from the distant past; very old

anew: adv. in a new manner; once more

angel: n. a spirit, usually thought to be from heaven

anglicize: v. make more English-like in spelling, pronunciation, custom or manner

anonymous: adj. without the sender’s or author’s name

anthem: n. a song that is symbolic of a people, a group, a culture, a movement; usually a song of praise

anticipation: n. looking forward, thinking of the future

appreciation: n. thankfulness

apprenticeship: n. on-the-job training for someone new

approach: v. present someone with an idea or proposal

arbor: n. a leafy recess formed by trees and bushes

aristocracy: n. royalty; nobility; upper class

armistice: n. a long term agreement to end fighting

artistry: n. fine art work; artistic ability

aspect: n. part; characteristic

assassinate: v. to murder someone of importance or fame

avoidance: n. act of preventing

B

banquet: n. a special meal held in honor of an important event, usually a large meal for many people

barbeque: n. a meal in which the food is cooked outside over charcoal or an open fire

barley: n. a type of cereal used in making some beverages and soups

barren: adj. not capable of producing new life; desolate

beam: n. a long piece of wood as part of the structure of a boat or house

behead: v. to execute by having one’s head cut off

being there: v. phrase, being available, present, supportive

bell tower: n. a tall structure where bells are hung

biannual: adv. occurring twice a year, also called “semi-annual.” Something that occurs every two years is biennial.

Bible: n. the holy book of the Christian religion

bill: n. a proposed law in government

birthday boy or girl: adj. + n. a term commonly used to refer to a child on the day of his or her birth

bitter: adj. difficult to bear; distasteful

blithe: adj. carefree; happy without care

bloodshed: n. violence resulting in injury or death

bob: v. to move up and down briefly and repeatedly

bog: n. swamp or wetland

bonfire: n. large public fire used for celebration or other event

bountiful: adj. plentiful; producing a lot; abundant

boycott: n. a refusal to buy or support something in order to express strong disapproval, usually based on political, economic, or social reasons

burst: v. to explode or break open with force

C

camouflage: v. to hide or conceal by blending in with the surroundings

campaign: v. to push or advance a cause; to promote

camp out: v. to wait in line a very long time, even overnight, for an event or to buy a ticket

cap and gown: n. traditional head covering and robe worn for graduation ceremonies

cargo: n. a load of goods or raw materials carried by ship or airplane

carol: n. a song of praise or joy, especially for Christmas

caroler: n. a person singing carols at Christmas time, generally in a group standing outside or going door to door in a neighborhood

carve: v. to cut a design carefully with a knife

cast: v. to shape melted metal

cause: n. a socially valuable principle or moral standard

celebrate: v. to honor by a ceremony or festivity, to observe a holiday or other special day with ceremonies, festivities, respect, or rejoicing

celebrity: n. a well-known or famous person

cemetery: n. graveyard; place of burial

centennial: n. one hundred year anniversary

characteristic: n. quality; trait; aspect

charitable: adj. relating to assistance to people in need

cheery: adj. friendly, happy

cherished: adj. loved, respected, or appreciated

cherry bomb: n. small round explosive that looks like a cherry and explodes with a loud crack when thrown on the ground

cherub: n. a type of angel appearing as a young boy with wings

chore: n. regular or daily work, usually in a household or on a farm

christen: v. to name ceremoniously

churchyard: n. the ground around a church, often used as a graveyard

cite: v. to officially name or mention something or someone

Civil Rights Movement: n. political activities during the 1950s and ’60s to end discrimination and unfair laws

clam: n. type of shellfish found buried in the sand or mud

cloak: n. a long, loose outer garment

coal: n. black ore used for fuel

code of ethics: phrase. a set of ideas defining what actions or activities are right and wrong

collective bargain: phrase. a system in which employees talk as a group to their employers to try to agree on issues such as pay and conditions of work

collectively: adv. together as a group

collegiate: adj. referring to college or university

colloquial: adj. in an informal way of speaking or pronouncing words

colony: n. a group of people living in a new territory with strong ties or links to their parent country

commemorate: v. to honor and remember with a ceremony or holiday

commemoration: n. a ceremony or observation to remember someone or a group or event or action

commemorative: adj. describing something done to remember a person or an event

commencement: n. the beginning; a university degree ceremony

commercialize: v. to exploit for profit

commodity: n. product or good which is bought or sold

complicated: adj. having many parts or aspects; not simple or easy

comprise: v. to consist of, to be made up of

comrade: n. good friend; a colleague

concept: n. idea; notion

condition: n. circumstance; life situation

confess: v. to tell or admit wrongdoing

confetti: n. small bits of colored paper thrown into the air to mark a celebration

confirm: v. to establish as true

conglomeration: n. a mixture or collection of dissimilar things

congressional: adj. of an elected group of representatives

connotation: n. suggested meaning

consciousness: n. knowledge or awareness

conservation: n. protection of something such as resources, the environment, or way of life

consumerism: n. a general term describing the culture of the purchase of goods and services

controversial: adj. pertaining to opposing, disputed, or debatable views

controversy: n. issue for which people have strong opinions on both sides; a dispute or debate

convention: n. large meeting generally to learn about and discuss issues

convey: v. to suggest; to show; to carry meaning

convince: v. to persuade; to make someone agree

core: n. center; central part

costume: n. clothing characteristic of another period, place, person, etc., as worn on stage or for holidays

council: n. a committee or legal body appointed or chosen to carry out a set of objectives

courtship: n. the act of dating, or actions seeking the affections of a woman (usually with the hope of marriage)

crack (of dawn): n. the earliest light of the day; daybreak

crackle: v. to make a popping noise, often because of a fire or flame

creed: n. a set of beliefs

criticism: n. the act of making a written or oral comment of evaluation, usually negative

crown: n. monarchy; the king and his rule

crowning: adj. greatest

crutches: n. support used as a walking aid

customary: adj. commonly practiced or used as a matter of course; usual

D

decade: n. a period of ten years

decimation: n. destruction or killing of a large part of

declare: v. to officially and publicly name

decorate: v. to furnish or cover with something ornamental, such as to place flowers on a grave

dedicate: v. set aside for a person or purpose; designed specifically for a person or purpose; to observe or have in honor of

delegation: n. official group or representatives

demonstration: n. a gathering of people for the purpose of public protest or support

depiction: n. picture, drawing or representation of something

descendant: n. a person related to someone who lived in the past; offspring of an ancestor

descent: n. family origin or line

desertion: n. abandonment; leaving a responsibility, often without warning or permission

designate: v. to officially choose for a particular reason or purpose; to name or assign

designation: n. something chosen for a particular reason or purpose

destine: v. to be intended for; to be received by a specific person or at a specific destination

destiny: n. fate; future

determined: adj. stubbornly certain of attaining a goal

dignity: n. self-respect; nobleness of manner

dip: v. to lower slightly

diploma: n. a document issued by a university or other school testifying that a student has earned a degree or complete a particular course of study

disabled: adj. having limited ability due to an injury or physical abnormality

discrimination: n. unfair treatment because of race, color, age, etc.

dismal: adj. miserable and depressing

dissolve: v. to break up or break apart; to make a solution by mixing with a liquid

distinctively: adv. noticeable; noticeably different

distress: adj. emergency; of great trouble or pain; a state of extreme misfortune

diverse: adj. varied; different

divinity: n. a field of study in an American university or college relating to religious studies or theology

doctorate: n. the highest academic degree

document: adj. written evidence providing proof of an event

doom: v. to judge against; condemn or send to a terrible fate or punishment

drab: adj. dull, light color

dragon: n. a mythical animal represented by a huge fire-breathing reptile, often with wings

dramatize: v. to emphasize in a vivid or emotional way

drape: v. to cover or hang with fabric

dress up: v. to wear a costume

drive: n. organized event or effort to raise money for a cause

drive: v. to provide the power to make something happen; to pound in, such as a nail

durable: adj. able to resist wear or decay well; lasting

E

effectively: adv. actually; functioning; adequate to accomplish a purpose

elaborate: adj. beautifully decorated; complex in detail; complicated in design

electoral vote: n. vote from the Electoral College which elects the President and Vice President of the U.S. Each state appoints as many electors as it has senators and representatives in Congress; the District of Columbia has three votes. Though pledged to vote for their state’s winners, electors are not constitutionally obliged to do so. A candidate must win more than 50% of the votes to win the election. (from the online Encyclopedia Britannica: http://www.britannica.com)

elf: (pl. elves) n. small mischievous or helpful creature in mythology

Emancipation Proclamation: n. the U.S. government document that officially proclaimed or stated American slaves to be free. The word emancipation refers to setting someone or something free. A proclamation is a public or formal announcement.

embody: v. to represent or contain fully

embrace: v. accepted enthusiastically

emission: n. carbon dioxide and other such harmful chemical substances sent into the air from such things as automobiles and factories

emphasize: v. to give special significance; to stress

enact: v. to make official; to make into a law

encourage: v. to inspire; to make others feel braver

enforce: v. to make people obey laws or rules

enhance: v. to make greater, more beautiful or to increase in value

ensure: v. to make certain; to guarantee

enthusiastically: adv. with great interest and energy

environment: n. the air, soil, and living things around us

envision: v. to imagine; to form a mental picture

equity: n. justice or fairness

escort: v. to accompany; to go with or take to an event,

etch: v. carve on stone or other hard surface

ethnic: adj. having to do with people and their nationalities and customs

evolve: v. to develop over a long period of time

exclaim over: v. phrase, to admire openly

execute: v. to put to death by an official order

exist: v. to live; to be

exotic: adj. strange or different in a way that is fascinating, interesting, beautiful; foreign

expand: v. to increase in size or scope

expose: v. to uncover; to allow to be seen

exposition: n. a public exhibition or show

extinction: n. dying off of all members of a group or species

extol: v. to praise

F

fabric: n. cloth; material

fake: adj. artificial; false

fallen: adj. killed in battle

fanfare: n. large, noisy celebration or show; a sounding of trumpets in order to get attention

father figure: n. phrase. a person who acts as a father in a child’s life such as a grandfather, stepfather, uncle, brother, or good friend

feasible: adj. possible; workable; practical

feast: n. great meal with a lot of good food, often for celebrations

feat: n. an action that involves risk or difficulty

feature: v. to show prominently; to present as a special item

federal: adj. of or relating to the national government

fee: n. a payment required for a service

fervently: adv. strongly; passionately

festive: adj. lively; fun

festivity: n. a joyous celebration or party

fine: v. to charge a fee as punishment

fire: v. to dismiss from a job

firearm: n. gun, cannon or other such weapon

firecracker: n. a small explosive set off to make noise and a flash of light

fireworks: n. a display of explosive devices as part of a celebration

fitting: adj. appropriate; suitable

float: n. a platform carrying a display in a parade, usually pulled by a vehicle

food drive: phrase, an activity to collect food for the poor and home-bound sick people

fool-hearty: adj. foolish; unwise

fortunate: adj. lucky; blessed; successful

forum: n. place or meeting for the open exchange of ideas

found: v. to establish; to set up; to start

founding fathers: n. phrase, the men who wrote and signed the Constitution and led the United States in its early years

foundry: n. factory where items are made from melted ore and metal

frankincense: n. material from a special East African or Arabian tree that makes a fragrant smell when it is burned

Frisbee: n. brand name of a flat, round, plastic disk that is thrown and caught as a sports activity

frontier: n. wilderness; unsettled open lands

full measure: n. phrase, complete, entire

funding: n. money for a project or venture, financial support

fur: n. hair of an animal

G

game: n. wild animals hunted for food or sport

gather: v. to join or bring together; to meet

gem: n. precious stone such as ruby, emerald, diamond

generous: adj. liberal in giving

germinate: v. to sprout; to start to grow, such as a seed

get-together: n. an informal party or meeting

ghetto: n. a defined area of a town or city where a certain ethnic or cultural group lives

ghost story: n. phrase, a scary or frightening story about ghosts, goblins or evil spirits

glimpse: v. to see briefly

glowing: adj. bright, shining from an inner light

goblin: n. an evil or tricky spirit

gong: n. metal disc which produces a deep musical tone

goody: n. sweet food that children like to eat

gourd: n. squash-like plant; the dried hollow shell of the plant’s fruit

gradual: adj. slow; little by little

grassroots: adj. from people at a local level rather than a central organization or agency

gratitude: n. thankfulness

gravesite: n. place where a person is buried

graveyard: n. a place where people bury their dead, cemetery

Great Depression: phrase, a drastic decline in the world economy from 1929 to 1939 that resulted in widespread unemployment and poverty

grievance: n. complaint

grieve: v. to feel deep sorrow or sadness as when someone dies

H

hallow: v. to make sacred or holy; to make highly respected

hamlet: n. small town; village

harvest: adj. referring to the time of year when crops are ripe and ready to gather

harvest: n. the gathering of food crops

hatchet: n. a tool to cut wood

headstone: n. stone marker for burial places

healing: n. an action or activity meant to restore to health

heartfelt: adj. sincere

heirloom: n. cherished family treasure, such as jewelry or other item that is passed down from generation to generation

herald: v. to welcome or announce, often with ceremony, respect or celebration

heretofore: adv. up to this time

heritage: n. tradition; national or ethnic background

heroism: n. conduct having the qualities of a hero

hitch: v. to connect

homage: n. respect; honor

honor: v. to remember or recognize with respect and thanks

host: v. to receive people and provide services for an occasion

house: v. to provide lodging or shelter

household: adj. relating to the home

humorous: adj. funny; amusing

hymn: n. religious song or melody

ignore: v. pay no attention to; disregard

imagination: n. picture or idea in the mind

immigrant: n. person who moves permanently to another country

impact: v. to have a strong effect on

impose: v. to force upon, such as a rule or law

impress upon: v. phrase, to attempt to convince

incentive: n. a physical or emotional reward that pushes you toward a goal

Indian corn: n. phrase, dried corn with red, yellow, or blue kernels, often used as decoration

indigenous: adj. native to a region

indignity: n. an act of disrespect and humiliation

indivisible: adj. cannot be divided into smaller parts

inequity: n. a lack of equality or fair treatment

infuriate: adj. greatly angered

inhabit: v. to live in; to reside in

inhabitant: n. resident; a person who lives in a specific area or region

initiate: v. to begin

in part: prep. phrase, partly

insist: v. to be firm in one’s opinion, request or belief

inspire: v. to encourage; to give an idea to

instill: v. to give an idea or principle by example or teaching

instrumental: adj. influential; very important

in succession: prep. phrase, one after another; repeatedly

integrity: n. correct morals and behavior

intend: v. to plan; to have as a purpose

intermission: n. period of time to rest or take a break

in vain: adv. phrase. without the hoped for result

invest: v. to put money into, for future gain

issue: n. a topic or matter of discussion

J

jack-o-lantern: n. phrase, a pumpkin which has been carved with a scary or funny face, usually with a candle inside

jingle: adj. like the sound of a bell

joiner: n. a carpenter who makes desks, chairs, and other furniture that is put together from pieces

K

kick off: v. to begin, launch, commence

L

labor movement: n. phrase, political activities to improve the conditions of laborers

lantern: n. container from which light is emitted by a candle inside

largely: adv. mostly, almost completely

legacy: n. special history or anything that is handed down from one generation or era to the next

legend: n. a popular story, perhaps untrue, that is passed down through history

legendary: adj. related to myths or stories told long ago

legislator: n. a person who makes laws

liberal: adj. free; uncontrolled; excessive

liberal arts: phrase, a course of studies in an American university or college in such fields of study as foreign languages, English, literature, philosophy, history, abstract sciences (psychology, sociology)

limb: n. arm or leg

Lions Club: n. an international volunteer organization assisting those in need with such things as vision and health screening, supporting eye hospitals, and assisting youth

literally: adv. actually

live: adj. not pre-recorded; broadcast during the actual performance

lively: adj. active, fun, festive

lobby: v. to urge officials or members of Congress to vote a certain way on an issue

log schoolhouse: n. a one-room school made of wooden logs

lot: n. a piece of land with the use specified by an adjective; i.e., parking lot, used car lot, Christmas tree lot, empty lot

lump: n. an irregularly shaped piece of something

lunar: adj. of or related to the moon

lush: adj. green and abundant with plant life

M

Magi: n. wise men from the East who came with gifts for baby Jesus

major: n. an academic specialization chosen by students in a college or university

mantel: n. an ornamental shelf over a fireplace

martyr: n. a person who is killed, chooses to die, or suffers greatly for a cause or belief

mason: n. stone carver or bricklayer

masquerade ball: n. a dance or social gathering of people wearing masks or coverings over their eyes or face so as not to be recognized

mass: adj. pertaining to large numbers or quantities; not separated

massacre: n. execution of a large number of people

mate: n. one member of a couple or pair

memoir: n. a written account of one’s memory of certain events

memorial: n. ceremony or monument to honor the memory of a person who has died or an historical event

merchant: n. person who buys and sells items

meticulously: adv. in a very careful and detailed manner

migrant: n. someone who moves from place to place for work

migrate: v. to move, usually a far distance, to a new place of location

milestone: n. significant event in history or a person’s life

militia: n. local, state or reserve military force, called in for emergencies

mingle: v. to mix with; to join with

minister: n. a cleric or religious leader, especially in the Protestant church

mission: n. goal; important plan or aim

mistakenly: adv. in error

momentum: n. speed or force of motion

monument: n. a stone, building or some structure created to remember a person or event

mortarboard: n. a cap topped by a flat square worn for college graduation

mother figure: n. phrase, person who acts as a mother in a child’s life such as a grandmother, stepmother, aunt, sister, good friend

motivation: n. incentive; something that pushes you toward a goal

movement: n. large-scale group activities toward the achievement of a goal

multitude: n. a large number of; many

mutual: adj. two or more people feeling the same thing or doing the same thing to each other

myrrh: n. material from a special East African or Arabian tree which is used in making perfumes

mythical: adj. based on a traditional story or myth, or imagination

mythological: adj. not having a factual basis, relating to a myth or story

N

native son: n. man native to a particular place, often one’s same country

nativity scene: n. phrase, an exhibit of statues or figures which show baby Jesus in the manger with Mary, Joseph, the shepherds and the Magi

New World: phrase, name given by early explorers to the Western Hemisphere

nominee: n. a person who has been proposed for office

Norse: adj. Norwegian, from or relating to Norway

noted: adj. well-known; celebrated; famous; important

nurse: v. to care for; to nourish or feed from the breast

O

obligation: n. responsibilities; duties

observe: v. to respect or follow a law or custom; to remember and celebrate a special day

obsolete: adj. not in use anymore because something more modern has replaced it

on strike: idiom, not working as a protest against management

oration: n. a formal speech

orator: n. a person who gives skillful or effective public speeches

oratorical: adj. speaking; having to do with public speaking

orchard: n. groves of fruit or nut trees planted for the purpose of cultivation

organize: v. to form an association for a goal or purpose

origin: n. beginning; source

originate: v. to begin or start a practice or tradition

orphan: n. a child whose parents have died or have abandoned the child

outcome: n. a result or the effect of an action

outlaw: v. to make illegal

outrageous: adj. shocking; elaborate or wild in design

outstanding: adj. very special; high quality; excellent

oversee: v. to direct, supervise or manage

P

pack: v. to fill as fully as possible

pageant: n. a parade or play for a special event

pageantry: n. formal parades and plays related to an event

parade: n. a public procession or display of people, animals and/or formations moving in a single line

participate: v. to be actively involved in

partygoer: n. a person who attends a party

pay respect: v. phrase, to honor or show reverence for something or someone

pay tribute: v. phrase, to honor with praise and respect

peek: v. to take a quick look as if from a place of hiding

perish: v. to die

perseverance: n. trying again and again without giving up

personalize: v. to make personal by adding the owner’s name or initials

persuade: v. to convince someone to do something

pertain: v. relate to

petition: v. to formally demand or request some action from a government or other authority

petition: n. a document signed by a large number of people requesting some action

pet name: n. phrase, sweet or endearing nickname; special name given to a loved one

picket: v. to stand or demonstrate outside a building or place of work to prevent people from entering and working as a means of protest

Pilgrim: n. member of a religious group that founded a colony in North America

pilgrimage: n. travel to a place that holds special meaning

pinnacle: n. highest point

pioneer: n. a person who settles in new territory

pirate: n. a robber on the sea

plank: n. long wooden board

plantation: n. a farm or estate on which crops such as tobacco or sugar are cultivated by resident laborers

Pledge of Allegiance: phrase, the oath of fidelity to the United States. To pledge is to make a serious promise or agreement. Allegiance refers to loyalty or faithfulness to a government or group.

plentiful: adj. a very large amount; more than enough

plowboy: n. farm worker

politician: n. an elected government official

poll: n. voting place

pollution: n. the harmful contamination or destruction of the environment with man-made waste and chemicals

pomp: n. great ceremony or display

pompom: n. colored ball made of yarn or cloth

poppy: n. a species of flower known for its bright red or scarlet petals

post: n. military camp or fort

posthumous: adj. happening after a person’s death

pottery: n. artistic or useful item made from clay or other substance, that is baked and decorated

prairie: n. flat, grassy region of land

prank: n. a trick or mischievous act

predict: v. to suggest or see the future

prescribe: v. to give guidance or a rule or a direction

preservation: n. protection from harm or destruction

presumably: adv. assumption or belief that something is true

prevail: v. to triumph; to be victorious

pricey: adj. expensive

privilege: n. special right

procession: n. long moving line of people in a parade or ceremony

proclaim: v. to declare; to announce publicly; to officially name

proclamation: n. an official or public announcement

production: n. staged performance or show

progeny: n. a child or descendent

prohibit: v. to not allow; to forbid

proliferation: n. increase in abundance or number

promoter: n. supporter

proponent: n. one who supports or agrees with a cause or idea

propose: v. to offer an idea

prosperity: n. wealth; abundance

protocol: n. a set of customs and regulations

pulse: n. beat; heartbeat

pumpkin: n. large orange squash-like vegetable

pyrotechnics specialist: n. phrase, person trained in the safe use of fireworks and skilled in elaborate fireworks presentations

Q

quest: n. a search

R

racism: n. hatred and prejudice based on racial or ethnic background

raid: v. to attack suddenly and without warning; to attack for the purpose of stealing goods and supplies

rally: n. meeting held to arouse public interest and support

randomly: adv. by chance; not in any order

rank: n. position or level within the military, e.g. general; captain; sergeant

rebellion: n. opposition to authority; revolution or uprising

recipient: n. person who receives a gift, award or honor

recite: v. to say out loud from memory or read out loud

reconciliation: n. forgiveness; settling a problem; the act of restoring harmony or a resolution of differences

reconstruction: n. rebuilding

recover: v. to get well after an illness, disaster, or injury

recycle: v. to use again; to process old material for new use

reenact: v. to perform or act out a scene or event from the past

reenactment: n. a performance of a historical event

reflection: n. a thought, opinion or remark made after consideration; deep thought

reform: n. official or legal changes

reformer: n. person who works to bring about social change

refreshment: n. light food and drink

regalia: n. special clothing or outfit worn for ceremonial purposes

registry: n. an official list

reindeer: n. deer-like animal living in cold regions

rejoice: v. celebrate with joy; to be happy

relevant: adj. related to a purpose or issue

reluctant: adj. not willing; hesitant

renown: adj. well-known, famous

repeal: v. to make a law no longer have any legal force

replica: n. exact copy; likeness

reputation: n. public opinion about the quality of someone’s character

reservation: n. a tract or parcel of land set aside for the use of a group or groups such as the Native American tribes

resign: v. to quit a job or position

resort: v. to turn to an extreme action

resplendent: adj. spectacular and richly decorated

restriction: n. rules; regulations

resurgence: n. a rise in popularity after a period of declining or absent popularity

retailer: n. a person who sells items directly to customers

reunion: n. meeting of a family or group, often to celebrate

reveler: n. a person who is celebrating at a party or other festivity

Reverend: n. a title of respect applied to a member of the clergy or religious leader

revive: v. to make something popular again

right: n. a legal claim

ring in the new year: v. an expression that means to celebrate and welcome the new year

ritual: n. symbolic gestures to show respect, thanks, prayer or blessing

rival: adj. competing; enemy

robust: adj. strong, healthy

rodeo: n. a public performance and/or competition featuring such activities as horse riding, bull riding, and calf roping

root: n. origin

Rose Bowl: n. phrase, a special tournament or final championship competition held each year in Pasadena, California between competing American university football teams

run-down: adj. needing much repair; in bad condition because of neglect

S

sacred: adj. holy; highly respected, usually in a religious sense

sacrifice: n. giving up of an important thing; something given up in exchange for something else

saint: n. a title given by a religious faith (usually Christian) to represent one of God’s chosen

salutatorian: n. the student, usually ranked second highest in class, who pronounces the welcome address at a college or university graduation ceremony

salute: n. gesture of honor or respect

sane: adj. mentally stable; using good judgment

saturate: v. to fill up completely

savior: n. one who saves or brings salvation

scare away: v. to chase or frighten away

scroll: n. long rolled paper containing writing or pictures

seamstress: n. woman whose profession is sewing

secede: v. to withdraw from an organization or group

secular: adj. of or relating to worldly concerns; nonreligious

segregation: n. separation by race, color, age or other characteristic

sentiment: n. a feeling

sentimental: adj. emotional; full of feeling

sermon: n. a speech delivered in public, usually by a religious leader as part of a religious gathering

service: n. a weekly or special religious ceremony generally held in a church or other place of worship

set foot: v. phrase, to step upon land or property

settlement: n. a village or town that where people have established a new community

shawl: n. long piece of cloth used for covering one’s shoulders and head

shelter: n. safe place; haven

shepherd: n. a person who takes care of or watches sheep

shift: v. to change

showcase: v. to display prominently in order to show the positive features

signal: v. to indicate; to mark

significant: adj. meaningful; important

silhouette: n. the shadow-like shape of something seen from the side; an outline of something or someone filled in with black

single parent: n. phrase, one parent alone raising a child or children

skeleton: n. the bone framework of a body

sleeve: n. the part of a shirt that covers the arms

sleigh: n. a vehicle with runners pulled by animals over snow

slogan: n. a saying or phrase that expresses the feelings or cause of a group

soap: v. to cover with soap

solemn: adj. serious

solemnity: n. seriousness

soup kitchen: phrase. a place where food is served free of charge to people in need

spacious: adj. having a lot of space; wide and open

span: v. to cross the length between two points

spark: v. to produce a flash of light due to heat, fire, or electricity; to suddenly cause to set in motion

sparkler: n. a type of fireworks on a long stick which sends out sparks and flashes of light when lit

spectator: n. person who watches an event or performance

spice: n. flavoring for food, such as pepper, nutmeg, or cinnamon

spicy: adj. containing aromatic substances such as cinnamon and nutmeg

spike: n. a narrow thin shape with a point on one end, usually metal

spirit: n. an attitude or intention

spiritual: adj. relating to or affecting the spirit, often in a deeply religious sense

split logs: v. to divide a log or tree trunk lengthwise

sponsor: n. people or organizations that support and finance an activity

sponsor: v. to provide financial or official support

spooky: adj. scary, frightening

spouse: n. husband or wife

squash: n. a round or long vegetable belonging to the gourd family

stable: n. a farm building where animals are kept

standardize: v. to make to look the same; to have common characteristics or goals

steward: n. one who is responsible for the preservation and care of something

stingy: adj. unwilling to share

street party: n. phrase, a celebration held in the street by a neighborhood or community

strew: v. to throw around lightly

strike: n. a refusal to continue working because of an argument with an employer about working conditions or pay

strike: v. to refuse to work in order to make demands on an employer

stroke of midnight: n. 12:00 a.m. exactly; when the clock shows or chimes 12:00 a.m.

struggle: n. a great effort; a fight; a war

stun: adj. shocked; surprised

substitute: v. to be replaced

suffrage: n. the right to vote in an election

suit: adj. matched; appropriate for

supposedly: adv. according to some people; it is assumed to be true

surrender: v. to give up

surveying: n. a field of work that involves measuring and mapping land

survival: n. ability to live

swear into: v. phrase, to take an oath before beginning an official position; be inaugurated

sympathy: n. association (with), inclination (to)

synonymous: adj. equal to in meaning; compare to equally

T

tactic: n. strategy; planned method

tall tale: n. a story that is untrue or exaggerated

tangible: adj. concrete, something which can be seen or held

tart: adj. sweet and sour taste combined

tassel: n. a bunch of loose threads bound together at one end and hanging free at the other, used as an ornament

taunt: v. to tease in a hostile way

teach-in: n. an educational demonstration or rally

tension: n. strained or hostile relations

terrain: n. land and its physical features

territory: n. a large area of land; a district or region; a geographic area or subdivision of land that is under the jurisdiction or rule of a government, but is not a full part of that government’s country

testimonial: n. formal statement or declaration of value or merit; words of praise

theology: n. study of religion

three-legged race: n. phrase, a foot race in which one person’s left leg is tied to another person’s right leg, and they run tied together on “three legs”

tier: n. a layer

tinsel: n. shiny, thin strands of silver or gold colored paper used to decorate the Christmas tree

toll: v. to ring

topped: adj. placed on top

tournament: n. a contest involving a number of competitors

trace: v. to discover the cause or origin of something

tract: n. a section of land

tradition: n. custom, belief, ritual, or practice, often from the past

transcontinental: adj. extending across a continent

treacherous: adj. difficult and dangerous

treasonous: adj. acting against one’s own country

treat: v. to give or provide without cost, such as a meal or entertainment

treat: n. a reward, usually a sweet food

trial: n. a situation that tests a person’s endurance or tolerance

tribe: n. ethnic, genetic or language group

tribute: n. statement of praise and respect

Trick or Treat: phrase. an expression used by children at Halloween: “Give us a treat, or we’ll play a joke on you!”

tumultuous: adj. turbulent, troubled

turnip: n. a large root eaten as a vegetable

turquoise: n. semi-precious stone of pale or dark green- blue; often used in Native American jewelry

twinkle: n. sparkle; bright spot like a star

tyranny: n. unjust or cruel use of power

U

unconstitutional: adj. not legal according to a constitution

unfamiliar: adj. unknown; new

unfurl: v. to unroll; to unfold

unidentified: adj. having no name or identity

Union: n. refers to the United States

union: n. an organization of workers

unionize: v. to form a legal union or group

unison: n. having one voice or sound

unrest: n. public dissatisfaction or rebellion

upholstery: n. materials such as cloth, leather, and padding used to make a soft covering, usually for furniture

upside down: adv. with the top turned so as to be positioned on the bottom

V

valedictorian: n. a student, usually ranked highest in the graduating class, who delivers the farewell oration at commencement

vehemently: adv. strongly, with anger

velvet: n. a fabric with a soft smooth dense pile and plain back

venture: n. plan; undertaking

veteran: n. member of the armed forces, now retired or discharged

vie: v. to try for or compete for

vigil: n. watchful, solemn guard

violate: v. to act against a right, law or contract

virtual: adj. true

visible: adj. able to be seen; clearly seen

vow: n. a solemn promise or commitment to a prescribed role, typically to marriage

vulnerable: adj. unprotected; easily harmed or taken advantage of

would-be: adj. possible; hoped to be

wreath: n. a ring or circle of leaves and/or flowers used for decoration, often hung on the door as decoration at Christmas time

Y

yarn: n. thread made of natural or synthetic fibers

W

wage: v. to engage in; to carry on

wage: n. a fixed amount of money that is paid regularly, usually for work that requires physical skills or strength

wagon train: n. a group or line of vehicles with four wheels, pulled by animals

wander: v. to walk without a goal

whimsical: adj. funny in a light way

wide-scale: adj. covering a large area

widespread: adj. existing in many places

widow: n. a woman whose husband has died

wilderness: n. wild area; nature

witch: n. a woman that is believed to have supernatural powers

witness: v. to observe a situation or event

wondrous: adj. remarkable; extraordinary